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Fig. 1 

THE EAR AS IT IS TODAY AND AS IT WAS ORIGINALLY 

Pod Corn on the right, and the "Pascal Ear" (Reid's Yellow 

r tVc^^^"^?'"" °^ America in 1907, on the left. This ear sold 

for $150 at the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers' Association. 



Corn 

GROWING JUDGING 

BREEDING FEEDING 

MARKETING 



For The 

FARMER, STUDENT and TEACHER of AGRICULTURE 

A TEXT-BOOK for AGRICULTURAL 

COLLEGES and HIGH SCHOOLS 



tlb tIt r|r 



vj>._ By 
Mm^ BOWMAN 

Formerly Professor of Farm Crops at Iowa State College of 

Agriculture and Mechanic Arts; Head of the Farm Crops 

Section of the Iowa Experiment Station 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

Copyright applied for in the United States, Canada. Argentine 

Republic and British Dependencies of South Africa 

by M. L. Bowman 

November. 1915 



SOLD BY WATERLOO PUBLISHING CO., 
WATERLOO, IOWA 

PRICE $2.00 






r M T f//5 ^00/^ w dedicated to one of 
M God's noble men; a kind hearted 

'^ whole-souled, untiring laborer for 
better agriculture ; your friend, my friend. 
Professor P. G. Holden. 




DEC I0i9l5 



0)CI.A418170 



PREFACE 



This work is a completely revised edition of the well known 
Bowman and Crossley book on Corn which is in such wide use 
throughout the Corn Belt. 

It has been the purpose of the Author to cover more completely 
with the latest and best available information from the different states, 
the various phases of corn growing, judging, breeding, feeding and 
marketing, making it of the greatest possible value to the farmer, to 
the student, to the teacher and to every one interested in America's 
Greatest Cereal Crop — Corn. 

I am very much indebted to Professor P. G. Holden, who for 
many years has been my close friend and advisor ; to the late Pro- 
fessor B. W. Crossley, who with me put out the first edition of the 
Corn Book, and to Professor S. A. Forbes, Illinois State Entomologist, 
who has kindly permitted my using the illustrations of the corn insect 
pests. To Professor Murl McDonald of the Extension Department of 
the Iowa State College I am especially indebted for his very able as- 
sistance in the preparation of data throughout the book. 

— The Author. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT. 

Corn, a native of the Western Hemisphere; thought to have been developed from 
teosinte ; cultivated by the Indians 1 

CHAPTER II. 
ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION AND VALUATION. 

ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING. 

In the United States, in each of the states. 

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 

In the world, in the United States, in each of the states. 
VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP. 

In the United States, in each of the states. 
THE PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES. 

The production of corn in Mexico, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Portugal, Spain, 
France, Italy, Greece, Austria Hungary, Roumania, Servia^ Bulgaria, Russia, Asia and 
Africa 4 

CHAPTER III. 
CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

CLASSIFICATION — The pod, pop, flint, dent, soft, sweet, and starchy sweet corns. 

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN — Plant Structure, nature of growth, primary and 
secondary roots, root structure, conditions affecting root growth, stalk, figuring leaf 
surface, drouth resisting characters, the flower, male or staminate flower, female or 
pistillate flower, development of ear, development of kernel 36 

CHAPTER IV. 

GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 

GERMINATION — Conditions of germination, vitality, moisture, proper temperature, oxygen. 

THE GROWTH OF PLANTS — Essentials of growth for green plants, constitution, water, 

proper temperature, light, plant food 55 



II CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V. 
CLIMATE AND SOIL IN ITS RELATION TO CORN. 

CORN AND CLIMATE — Effect of climate on distribution; effect of climate on character of 
growth; climate and varieties; effect of climate on composition; relation of corn 
growing to precipitation; relation of temperature to corn growing. 

CORN AND SOIL FERTILITY — Soil adapted to corn; influence of soil on composition of corn; 
continuous growing of corn; humus; necessity of rotation; manures; fertilizers; a 
rotation for the corn belt 72 

CHAPTER VI. 
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED CORN FOR PLANTING. 

Buying foreign seed ; harvesting seed corn ; the effect of moisture and freezing on 
the vitality of corn; the need of testing seed corn; making the germination test; shelling 
and grading; calibrating the planter; the corn grower's reminder 97 

CHAPTER VII. 

CARE OF THE CORN CROP. 

PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING. 

PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 

PLOWING THE GROUND — Objects of plowing; points of merit in plowing; depth of plow- 
ing; fall plowing; spring plowing; plowing sod. 

TREATMENT OF PLOWED GROUND BEFORE PLANTING — With a disc, special harrows, smooth- 
ing harrows, roller. 

PLANTING WITH CHECK ROWER — Time of planting; depth of planting; distance between 
rows; number of stalks per hill; what is a perfect stand; replanting of corn. 

DRILLING CORN. 

LISTING — Preparing the ground ; use of the lister 138 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP. 

CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN — Objects of tillage; harrowing corn; depth 
of cultivation; frequency of cultivation; kinds of cultivators. 

CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN 17g 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP. 

HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN. 

HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR — Stage of maturity; time of harvesting; methods of har- 
vesting; cost of harvesting; methods of unloading. 

STORING CORN — Principles involved ; cribs, shrinkage of corn 192 



CONTENTS III 

CHAPTER X. 

THE COST OF GROWING CORN. 

American Agriculturist and Orange Judd Farmer Estimates — What is cost; labor 
and wages; teams and maintenance; horse power and machinery; taxation; rent, im- 
plements, interest; seed; fertilizer; overhead expense; labor and its statistical treat- 
ment; removing stalks; plowing; harrowing; listing; fertilizing; planting; cultivation; 
gathering and cribbing; fodder; cost with allowance for interest on investment; con- 
clusion. 

Other Estimates — In Iowa, Missouri and Illinois 201 

CHAPTER XI. 
DISEASES AND INSECTS ATTACKING CORN. 

DISEASES OF CORN PLANT 

Corn smut; the Burrill Bacterial disease; corn wilt; leaf blight; maize rust; cob 
rot; corn stalk disease and ear rots. 

INSECT ENEMIES. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROWING CROP — The black headed grass maggot; the seed corn 
maggot; wire worms; cut worms; the sod web worm or root web worm; white grub; 
corn bill bug; corn root aphis; chinch bug; army worm; stalk borer; northern corn 
root worm ; grasshopper ; ear worm. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED CORN — Angumois grain moth; the grain weevil 216 

CHAPTER XII. 
THE MARKETING OF CORN. 

HOME MARKETS. 
COMMERCIAL MARKETS. 

HOME MARKETS — Line elevator systems; independent elevators; farmers' co-operative ele- 
vators; corn enroute to market. 

PRIMARY MARKETS — Receipts of corn at the principal markets; Chicago as a primary 
market; corn values; steps in the inspection of corn in the primary market; handling 
of grain on the cash floor ; commercial grades of corn ; grain storage ; federal in- 
spection; moisture test; registration of grain. 

TERMINAL MARKETS — Chicago as a terminal market; other terminal markets. 

TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS — Enumeration of principal terminal-export markets. 

EXPORT MARKETS — Amount of corn exported; countries purchasing export corn; prices of 
export corn; export freight rates; American grain trade certificates 250 



IV CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIII. 

BOARDS OF TRADE. 

THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS. 

The Board of Trade of the City of Chicago; organization of Board of Trade; pur- 
pose of Board of Trade analyzed; Omaha Grain Exchange; speculation in the grain 
trade; futures, why and how futures are settled without delivery, when delivery is un- 
necessary, how deliveries are made, settlements and settlement and delivery prices, de- 
livery price ; bucket shops 304 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN. 

THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL — By mechanical and milling methods; by mechanical 
and chemical processes ; by fermentation. 

THOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. 

THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF — From the Stalk; from the leaves; from the 
husks 332 

CHAPTER XV. 
COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF CORN. 

THE GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS 

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE — Tip Cap; hull ; horny glutenous part; horny starchy part; white 
starchy part ; germ. 

PHYSICAL ANALYSES. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS — Protein ; carbohydrates and fats, crude fiber. 

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS — Ash, water. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN — Percentage composition; digestibility; palatability and 
mastication; cost of production and preparation for feeding; corn vs. other cereals; 
corn as a feed for horses, hogs, sheep, milch cows, young cattle. 

FEEDING VALUE OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN — Gluten meal, corn bran, gluten feed, corn 
meal, corn oil meal, corn oil cake, starch feeds, hominy chops, distillers' grains, the 
new corn product 345 

CHAPTER XVI. 

CORN FODDER 

Manner of planting; varieties; time of harvesting; method of harvesting; shocking 
of fodder corn; methods of feeding corn fodder; losses in corn fodder; feeding value of 
corn fodder; the value of stalk fields; turning stock in the unhusked fields 366 



CONTENTS V 

CHAPTER XVII. 
CORN SILAGE AND CORN SILAGE PRODUCTION. 
Historical, in Europe, in United States; principles of preservation; time to plant; 
manner of planting; thickness of planting; varieties to plant; time of harvesting; in- 
vestigation of the growth of corn for silage; method of harvesting; size of silos; filling 
the silo; cost of silage; cost of filling silos; losses of silage in the silo; value of silage; 
composition and feeding value of corn silage 383 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

JUDGING CORN. 

Why judge corn; introduction of the corn score card; score cards used by the Farm 
Crops and Extension Departments, of the Iowa State College, the Corn Growers' 
Association; the use of a score card; practical hints in judging corn; selecting a sample 
of corn for show 402 

CHAPTER XIX 

THE VARIETIES OF DENT CORN NOW PRINCIPALLY GROWN IN THE 

CORN BELT. 

HISTORY, nREED CHARACTERISTICS, CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS OF — Learning, Reid's Yellow 

Dent, Iowa Silver Mine, Boone County White. 

HISTORY AND BREED CHARACTERISTICS OF — Legal Tender, White Superior, Shenandoah 
Yellow, Farmers' Reliance, Pride of the North, Silver King, Chase's White Dent, 
Wisconsin No. 7, Nebraska White Prize, Iowa Ideal, Willhoit, Cattle King, Kansas 
Sunflower, Minnesota No. 13, Hildreth Yellow Dent, Bloody Butcher, Calico, 
Golden Glow, Johnson County White, Golden Eagle, Golden Row, Early 
Mastodon 420 

CHAPTER XX. 

CORN BREEDING. 

THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER. 

Securing the seed for planting a selection bed; selecting seed for selection bed; size 
and location of seed bed; planting and care of selection bed; causes of barren stalks; 
causes of suckers, selecting seed ears from selection bed; selection bed, second year. .443 

CHAPTER XXL 

CORN BREEDING. 

FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PERMANENTLY IN THE 

BUSINESS. 
THE CORN breeder's PLAN — First year, trial crop; second year, mating individual ears in 
the breeding block; third year, increase bed; continuing individual ear test and 
mating in breeding blocks; pure bred and high grade seed; some points to be con- 
sidered by the seed corn breeder 454 

CHAPTER XXII. 
CORN BREEDING. 
Mechanical Methods of Selecting Seed Corn for Improved Chemical Composi- 
tion 467 




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CHAPTER I. 



HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT 



The word "Corn" has been in use from earliest times. At first it 
signified a grain as we use the term today when speaking of a single 
kernel, seed or particle. Later the name was applied to all cereal crops 
in general, and in Europe this custom still prevails. It was not until 
during the early colonization of America that the name "Corn" was 
legally accepted in its present application. In one of the counties of 
Pennsylvania a man had been indicted for stealing so many bushels of 
corn, and in course of the conflict his counsel took exception to the 
word as it was used, on the ground that this was not the perfect 
description of Indian corn. The exception, however, was overruled 
by court, who thus decided that corn was the established name for 
Indian corn. The old name Maize is still used to some extent. It is 
a later construction from ma-hiz, a Haytian word. We also find the 
term "Indian Corn" used considerably even in the present day. 

Some authorities claim that corn is of Eastern origin, and to sub- 
stantiate this statement they have attempted to show that the cereal 
was menioned in ancient Chinese literature before Columbus dis- 
covered America. Some of our most eminent botanists, however, such 
as Humboldt and Sturtevant, have very successfully refuted this argu- 
ment, and they have been able to show conclusively that America is 
the original home of corn. Traditions have it that as early as the year 
I002 A. D. Karlsefn, and again in 1006, Thorfin, both Norsemen, each 
saw and brought in their ships ears of corn from what is now Massa- 
chusetts. But stronger evidence is presented in the ears of corn which 
have been found with mummies of Mexico and Peru. We know, too, 
that Columbus discovered corn when he first landed on American soil. 

As to the distribution of corn in Europe, it is claimed by good 
authority that Columbus took it back to Spain with him, on the return 
from his great voyage. From Spain it was taken into France and Italy, 
although we know that its spread must have been very slow, for it was 
nearly a hundred years after the discovery of America before we find 
any mention made of corn in France. From Italy corn was taken into 



2 CORN 

Switzerland and Hungary, and from Hungary to Austria and eastern 
Europe. From Switzerland it was taken into the valley of the Rhine, 
and from Portugal corn was introduced into Asia. 

Indian corn entered into the mythological and religious ceremonies 
of the Indians, both of South and North America, long before they 
were disturbed by civilization. When the white man came to live 
among them they told him how to select the best ears for seed and 
how and when to plant it. To be sure, their methods were very crude. 
Since the land was covered by a dense forest it was necessary first 
that this should be cleared away. This the Indians did by burning a 
ring around the base of the trunk of the tree and by scraping away the 
charred bits until the tree could be blown over. Often, however, they 
would first girdle the tree with a rough stone axe and allow it to die 
before burning was attempted. When spring came, the squaw, who 
did the most of this work, proceeded to plant the corn. With a sharp 
stick she made holes in the ground about four feet apart, and after 
putting a fish or several crawfish into each hole she planted the seed on 
top of this and covered it over with soil. The fish were used as 
fertilizer. In the fall the corn was picked and stored away in pits dug 
in the ground. Such then, we are led to believe, were the methods 
adopted by our forefathers when they began farming on our native 
soil. 

The first successful attempt of the English to cultivate corn in 
North America was in 1608, along the James river in Virginia. A year 
or two later it is said that as much as thirty acres of corn were culti- 
vated there. It is recorded that as early as 1650 corn to the extent of 
600 bushels was exported from Savannah, and by 1770 the amount 
exported from this same place had reached 13,598 bushels. However, 
during the period intervening numerous exportations are recorded 
ranging from 10,000 to 250,000 bushels, so we know that even at this 
early date more corn was raised than was needed for home consump- 
tion. In 1770 the total amount exported from the colonies was 
578,349 bushels, and in 1800, 2,032,435 bushels were exported. By this 
we see that the development during this period was very rapid, at 
least considering the fact that agricultural implements were little 
known, and that there were no transportation facilities to speak of. 
The main increase in production was the result of increased acreage. 

As to the origin of the corn plant itself, some botanists have en- 
deavored to show that Teosinte, a rank-growing forage plant, is its 
progenitor. Teosinte is a native Mexican plant and is called by 
Watson "Zea canina." Recently Montgomery has expressed a similar 



HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT 3 

theory. He states that corn and Teosinte may have had a common 
origm, and he intimates that in the process of evolution it is probable 
that the pistillate spikes in Teosinte were developed from the lateral 
branches of a tassel-like structure, while corn was developed from the 
central spike. Further, he suggests that the progenitor of these plants 
was a large, much branched grass, each branch being terminated by a 
tassel-like structure. 

Bailey also expresses an opinion that ?ea canina may not be a dis- 
tinct species from our common corn. He mentions the tendency of 
some varieties of sweet corn to occasionally i)roduce multiple rudimen- 
tary ears, and of the canina to lose them under cultivation, as a point 
in favor of the theory of the relation. The tendency of cultivation in 
all plants is to develop some parts and organs rather than all parts 
and all organs. The tendency to sucker, to produce tassels on the ends 
of the ears, the profuse drooping tassels of the flint corn and kindred 
varieties, or pointed kernels, and the occurrence of these peculiarities 
in the aboriginal corn in the Aztec region tends to emphasize the 
relation that exists between the varieties. 

From the natural characteristics of the corn plant we may safely 
conclude that the distribution of the species was necessarily of an 
artificial nature, for the seed has no wing or appendage which would 
permit it to be blown about by the wind. Furthermore, the perishable 
nature of the seed was directly opposed to Nature's methods of scat- 
tering the species. It seems safe to assume that the species that exist 
today have either been developed by man and perpetuated by this 
same agency, or that man came upon the plant soon after its useful 
development and at once began to cultivate it. There are at present 
eight species of the genus Zeas. 

In 1814 there were only five varieties of corn (Zea Mays) known, 
i. e., Big Yellow, Big White, Little Yellow, Little White and Gourd- 
seed. Both the large and small varieties were flinty, corresponding to 
the old type of flint corn. The gourd-seed corn represents perhaps 
the first step in the development of the dent corn of today. It was 
characterized by a deep, pointed, soft kernel of either white or yellow 
color. By 1840 nearly forty varieties were known. These were based 
primarily upon color, size of ear, and density of kernel. At least one 
of our present standard breeds had its origin previous to that time and 
others soon followed. 



CHAPTER II. 



ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION 
AND VALUATION 

ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING 

The world's corn crop at present occupies annually 170 million acres. 
The total area of land devoted to corn growing in the United States in 
1914 amounted to *103,435,000 acres. If combined into a single field it 
would cover the entire land surface of the three states, Iowa, Illinois and Mis- 
souri. Since 1870 an acreage equal to nearly 12 per cent of all land classed 
as farm land and over 20 per cent of all improved farm land has been planted 
with corn each year. This would be equivalent to an 80 acre field in every 
section of farm land, or a 130 acre field in every section of improved farm 
land. 

The increase in acreage of corn has been for the past fifty years uniformly 
parallel to the increase in the area of farm land. The following chart illus- 
trates this increase from 1866 to 1914 inclusive. 



CHART NO. I. 

Acreage in Corn in the United States from 1866 to 1914. 

Millions of Acres. 



20 




Per cent 
Increase 



9Ai 
27.2H 

1.2,$ 
I'i.U 
29.9;< 



NOTE — The acreage designated in the above chart represents the average 
acreage for the periods indicated in the margin to the left. 

From the foregoing it is seen that the period of greatest increase was 
from 1881 to 1890, inclusive, being 55.1 per cent, and the period of slightest 
variation was from 1891 to 1900, being only 7.3 per cent. Climatic con- 
ditions and the state of the general market have been, perhaps, the most 
important factors in this increase. 

•1914 Year Book 



ACREAGE 5 

For the past fifty years the acreage devoted to corn growing has been 
slightly greater than that of all other cereals combined. In fact, 52 per 
cent of the entire area devoted to cereal crops, including corn itself, has been 
devoted to this crop. So constant has been this proportion that it has not 
varied more than 1 per cent either way during the past fifty years. 

The following chart will show the relative acreage of the cereal crops 
of the United States, taking an average for the five years 1910 to 1914 inclusive. 



CHART NO. 2. 

Comparative Acreage of all Cereals in the United States 

Five-Year Average, 1910-1914 Inclusive. 



MILLIONS OF ACRES 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 



Corn ■ 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Barley 
Rye - 
Rice - 




Per cent 
of Total 

52.2 

24.2 

18.S 

3.7 

1.1 
.0 



In considering briefly the acreage devoted to corn growing in each state 
during the past five years, note the following table, which also shows the acre- 
age devoted to other cereal crops, with the percentage of all improved farm 
land given to the production of corn and other cereals. 

It will be seen that the relative acreage devoted to the growing of corn 
and the other cereal crops varies widely in the different states. However in 
those states where the conditions are most favorable to corn growing the per- 
cent of improved farm land occupied by the crop is very high. Taking into 
consideration the entire United States, over one-fifth of all improved farm land 
is given annually to corn, and a little less than one-fifth is given to all other 
cereals combined. 



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PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 



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«2 









8 CORN 

The ten states leading in corn production represent 65 per cent of the 
total acreage of corn grown in the United States. Since 1900 the total acreage 
in corn in this country has increased about 35 per cent. The total acreage of 
the ten states leading in the production of corn shows an increase of 30 per 
cent over the eotal acreage in the ten states leading in 1900. 

In Illinois we find the highest per cent of land devoted to the production 
of corn, also the highest total acreage in corn. No doubt the increase in 
acreage the past ten years has been brought about through improved methods 
in farming, since we find the greatest increase right in the corn belt. Vast 
areas which were unfit for cultivation a few years ago have been reclaimed 
through drainage, and much of this land is today the most productive. 
As we adopt more careful methods of farming, such as systematic rotation or 
crops, however, acreage will play a minor role in the increased production of 
corn, and we must then depend upon a higher average yield. In other words, 
conditions will demand more bushels of sound corn on each acre devoted to 
corn production. 



WORLD'S PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

The world's corn crop in 1912, which is the year of the highest total 
production up to the present time, amounted to 4,369,742,000 bushels. In 
one year there was produced enough corn to fill a single crib eight feet wide 
to a uniform depth of eight feet for a length of 32,300 miles. This crib 
would extend from New York City around the world, and across the United 
State sagain to San Francisco, or, if all of this corn were to be piled upon a 
square mile of ground the pile would form a pyramid over one thousand feet 
high. 

There were concerned in this production five continents, including twenty- 
two different nations. A careful study of the following table will show the 
amount of corn produced by each country from 1910 to 1914; also which 
countries have been the heaviest producers. 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 



TABLE NO. 2. (000 omitted) 

WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CORN BY COUNTRIES. 

1910-1914 Inclusive. 



Country 



1910 
Bushels 



1911 
Bushels 



1912 
Bushels 



1913 
Bushels 



1914 
Bushels 



% of total 
worlds pro- 
duction av. 
1910-14 inc. 



North America 

United States . . . 
Canada : 

Ontario 

Quebec 

Other 

Mexico 

Total 

South America 

Argentina 

Chile 

Uruguay 

Total 

Europe 
Austria-Hungary : 

Austria 

Hungary proper 

Crotia-Slavonia . 

Bosnia-Herzegov. 

Total 

Bulgaria 

France 

Italy 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia: 

Russia proper . . . 

N. Caucasia .... 

Total Russia . . . 

Servia 

Spain 

Total Europe . . . 
Asia 

British India . . . 

Japan 

Philippine Islands 
Africa 

Algeria 

Egypt 

Union of S, Africa 

Total 

Australasia 
Australia: 

Queensland 

New South Wales 

Victoria 

West. Australia . 

South Australia . 

Total 

New Zealand 

Total Australasia 

Grand Total . . . 



2,886,260 

17,853 

860 

5 

190,766 

3,095,744 

175,187 
1,378 
6,514 

183,079 



16,823 

187,733 
25,589 
10,051 

240,196 
28,360 
23,399 

101,722 
15,000 

103,665 

63,089 
14,093 
77,182 
33,204 
27,366 
650,094 



556 
70,294 
20,000 
90,850 



2,588 

7,322 

1,195 

1 

7 

11,113 

750 

11,863 

4,031,630 



2,531,488 

18,001 

766 

6 

190,000 

2,740,261 

27,675 
1,221 
3,643 

32,539 



11,856 

137,421 

24,005 

8,416 

181,698 

30,500 

16,860 

93,680 

15,000 

110,712 

67,842 
14,087 
81,929 
26,531 
28,730 
585,630 

(3) 
3,550 
5,293 

554 
67,903 
20,000 
88,457 



4,601 

7,833 

1,013 

1 

7 

13,455 

478 

13,933 

3.460,820 



3,124,746 

16,466 
476 

8 

190,000 

3,331,950 

295,849 

1,527 

7,963 

• 305,339 



15,058 

176,694 

24,066 

8,555 

224,373 

28,475 

23,733 

98,668 

15,000 

103,921 

62,904 
16,704 
(b)79,608 
22,833 
25,069 
621,680 

(3) 
3,802 
7,810 

374 
60,859 

(4)30,830 
92,061 



3,752 

4,649 

818 

1 

2 

9,222 

278 

9,500 

4,371,888 



2,446,988 2,672,804 



16,182 

586 

5 

190,000 

2,653,761 

196,642 
1,647 
5,343 

203,632 



13,286 
182,069 

28,955 

7,559 

231,869 

32,000 

21,455 
108,388 

15,000 
114,662 

(a) 

(a) 

72,793 

23,621 

25,140 

644,928 

(3) 
3,559 
10,224 

394 

57,044 

(4)30,830 

88,268 



2,604 

5,273 

738 

4 
8,619 

222 

8,841 

3,613,213 



13,410 
514 

190,000 
2,876,728 

204,562 

(3) 
(3) 



(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

31,000 

22,000 
105,006 

15,000 
110,230 



80,608 
20,000 
30,325 



(3) 

3,753 
(3) 

(3) 

66,744 

(4)30,830 

97,574 



4,039 
4,496 
826 
(3) 
(3) 
9,461 
312 
9,773 
(3) 



70.60 



.42 

.02 



4.91 



4.70 
.04 
.15 



.40 

4.41 

.70 

.22 

.77 
.55 

2.62 
.39 

2.83 

1.66 
.39 

.65 
.71 



.09 
.20 

.00 

1.66 

.70 



.09 

.10 
.04 

.** 

.** 



(a) No official data received. (.1) No official report. 

(b) Includes Asiatic Russia. (4) Figures from 1911 census. 



10 



CORN 



At a glance it is seen from the foregoing table that North America and 
particularly the United States has been far in the lead in corn production. 
Europe follows in second place, but there is a very wide margin between the 
two continents. 

Basing our conclusions on the crop of 1914 we find that 16 countries 
show an increase in production during the past ten years, two countries show 
neither an increase nor a decrease, and four show an actual decrease. 

The only country which has made any phenomenal increase in the pro- 
duction of corn during the past fifteen years is Argentine Republic. This 
country has multiplied its production nearly five times since 1899. During 
the same period the United States shows an increase of 50 per cent. In 
1899 Argentina's production amounted to only 3.1 per cent of that of the 
United States, while in 1914 it reached nearly 6 per cent. 

A more comprehensive view of the relative production and distribution of 
corn may be found by studying the following table : 



TABLE NO. 3. 

PERCENTAGE OF WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CORN BY 
CONTINENTS. FROM 1900 TO 1914. 



Continent 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


Av. 


1914 


N. America. 


79.7 


67.7 


82.5 


77.4 


83.0 


81.5 


77.8 


81.2 


79.3 


78.8 


78.9 


76.4 


Europe .... 


16.7 


23.8 


13.3 


16.2 


9.7 


12.8 


15.9 


14.8 


15.1 


14.5 


15.3 


16.3 


S. America. . 


2.1 


4.5 


2.8 


5.0 


5.7 


4.2 


5.1 


2.4 


4.1 


5.1 


4.1 


4.8 


Africa 


.9 


1.3 


1.0 


1.1 


1.0 


1.1 


.9 


1.3 


1.2 


1.4 


1.1 


2.3 


Australia . . 


.3 


.4 


.2 


.1 


.3 


.2 


.2 


.29 


.29 


.19 


.25 


.2 


New Zealand 




.... 








.01 




.... 








.0 



Figures taken from the Report of the United States Department of Agriculture. 



In table No. 3, showing relative production by continents, it is seen that 
North America produced nearly four times as much corn as all other conti- 
nents combined. Foremost of the remaining countries stand Austria Hungary, 
Argentina, Mexico, Italy, Roumania and Russia, but the production of these 
six countries together is only about one-fifth of the production of the United 
States. 



PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE 
UNITED STATES 



It has been stated previously that the United States produce annually 
three-fourths of the world's corn crop. In 1912, which was the year of our 
greatest production, this amounted to 3,124,746,000 bushels,* 

The production of this great cereal has from the earliest times kept pace 
with the widespread of civilization and agriculture. The progress made 
during the past half century is best illustrated by the following chart. 

CHART NO. 3. 

INCREASE IN THE PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED 

STATES FROM 1866 TO 1914. 

Millions of Bushels 



1911-1914 
1901-1910 




500 


1000 


1500 


20 


00 


2500 


3,000 


Per cent of 
Increase 

6.4 


St 


1 1 


HI 


HT 


3; 






^^ 


12.8 
34.8 
38.2 




!3^ 






=^ 


^ 




1881-1890 






^^ 




1866-1870 


: 1 




WKK^i 


i^MQ 









NOTE — The percentage of Increase is figured on the average production desig- 
nated on the chart for the periods indicated in the left margin. 

The period of greatest increase was from 1871-1880 and the period froni 
1891 to 1900, shows the least increase of any decade recorded. The increase 
for the last five years recorded, however, has been even less, being only 6.4 per 
cent. 

The following table shows the annual increase in acreage and production, 
the average yield per acre, total value of the corn crop and price per bushel. A 
little study will show the relation that exists between acreage and production, 
and the relation between average yield per acre and price per bushel. 



*1914 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



12 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 4*. 
PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1866 TO 1914. 



Year 



Acreage 



Yield Bushels 



Total 



I Per Acre 



Value 



Total 



I Bu. Cts 



1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 



34,307,000 
32,520,000 
34,887,000 
37,103,000 
' 38,647,000 
34,091,000 
35,527,000 
39,197,000 
41,037,000 
44,841,000 
49,033,000 
50,369,000 
51,585,000 
53,085,000 
62,318,000 
64,262,000 
65,660,000 
68,302,000 
69,684,000 
73,130,000 
75,694,000 
72,393,000 
75,673,000 
78,320,000 
71,971,000 
76,205,000 
70,627,000 
72,036,000 
62,582,000 
82,076,000 
81,027,000 
80,095,000 
77,722,000 
82,109,000 
83,321,000 
91,350,000 
94,044,000 
88,092,000 
92,232,000 
94,011,000 
96,738,000 
99,931,000 
101,788,000 
108,771,000 
104,035,000 
105,825,000 
107.083,000 
105,820,000 
103,435,000 



867,946,000 
768,320,000 
906,527,000 
874,320,000 
1,094,255,000 
991,898,000 
1,092,719,000 
932,274,000 
850,148,000 
1,321,069,000 
1,283,828,000 
1,342,558,000 
1,388,219,000 
1,547,902,000 
1,717,435,000 
1,194,916,000 
1,617,025,000 
1,551,067,000 
1,795,528,000 
1,936,176,000 
1,665,441,000 
.1,456,161,000 
1,987,790,000 
2,112,892,000 
1,489,970,000 
(2,060,154,000 
1,628,464,000 
1,619,496,000 
1,212,770,000 
2,151,139,000 
2,283,875,000 
1,902,968,000 
1,924,185,000 
2,078,144,000 
2,105,103,000 
1,522,520,000 • 
2,523,648,000 
2,244,177,000 
2,467,481,000 
2,707,994,000 
2,927,416,000 
2,592,320,000 
2,668,651,000 
2,772,376,000 
2,886,260,000 
2,531,488,000 
3,124,746,000 
2,446,988.000 
2,672,804,000 



25.3 
23.6 
26.0 
23.6 
28.3 
29.1 
30.8 
23.8 
20.7 
29.5 
26.2 
26.7 
26.9 
29.2 
27.6 
18.6 
24.6 
22.7 
25.8 
26.5 
22.0 
20.1 
26.3 
27.0 
20.7 
27.0 
23.1 
22.5 
19.4 
26.2 
28.2 
23.8 
24.8 
25.3 
25.3 
16.7 
26.8 
25.5 
26.8 
28.8 
30.3 
25.9 
26.2 
25.5 
27.7 
23.9 
29.2 
23.1 
25.8 



411,451,000 
437,770,000 
424,057,000 
522,551,000 
540,520,000 
430,356,000 
385,736,000 
411,961,000 
496,271,000 
484,675,000 
436,109,000 
467,635,000 
440,281,000 
580,486,000 
679,714,000 
759,482,000 
783,867,000 
65-8,051,000 
640,736,000 
635,675,000 
610,311,000 
646,107,000 
677,562,000 
597,919.000 
754,433^000 
836,439,000 
642,147,000 
591,626,000 
554,719,000 
544,986,000 
491,007,000 
501,073,000 
552,023,000 
629,210,000 
751,220,000 
921,556,000 

1,017,017,000 
952,869,000 
1,087,461,000 
1,116,697,000 
1,166,626,000 
1,336,901,000 
1,616,145,000 
1,652,822,000 
1,384,817,000 
1,565,258,000 
1,520,454,000 
1,692,092,000 
1,722.070,000 



47.4 
57.0 
46.8 
59.8 
49.4 
43.4 
35.3 
44.2 
58.4 
36.7 
34.0 
34.8 
31.7 
37.5 
39.6 
63.6 
48.5 
42.4 
35.7 
32.8 
36.6 
44.4 
34.1 
28.3 
50.6 
40.6 
39.4 
36.5 
45.7 
25.3 
21.5 
26.3 
28.7 
30.3 
35.7 
60.5 
40.3 
42.5 
44.1 
41.2 
39.9 

51.6 
60.6 
59.6 
48.0 
61.8 
48.7 
69.1 
64.4 



"Taken from Year Book U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. 



PRODUCTION OF CEREALS 



13 



TABLE NO. 5 



PRODUCTION OF CORN AND SMALL GRAIN BY STATES. 
Average for Five Years, 1910-1914 inclusive. (Bushels) 



State 


Corn 


Wheat 


Oats 


Barley 


' Rye 


(Bushels) 


(Bushels) 


(Bushels) 


(Bushels) 


(Bushels) 


Neiu England 












Maine 


711,600 


75,800 


5,338,600 


151,000 




N. Hampshire 


977,000 




444,200 


32,800 




Vermont 


1,871,400 


27,000 


3,112,800 


416,800 


23,000 


Massachusetts 


2,086,200 




296,800 




60,400 


Rhode Island 


443,000 




58,400 






Connecticut . . 


2,809,600 




351,200 




147,600 


Middle Atlantic 












New York . . . 


19,569,200 


7,080,400 


40,754,600 


2',099,000 


2,409,600 


New Jersey . . 


10,251,200 


1,461,600 


2,103,400 




1,305,200 


Pennsj'lvania 


60,661,000 


21,726,200 


35,258,800 


196.600 


5,127,800 


East N. Central 












Ohio 


151,691,000 


30,412,600 


63,675,800 


776,600 


1,190,600 


Indiana 


180,464,200 


32,528,400 


53,521,400 


229,400 


1,195,400 


Illinois 


348,845,800 


35,323,400 


139,745,400 


1,453,600 


890,400 


Michigan .... 


56,848,000 


14,478,000 


48,397,600 


2,122,400 


5,482,800 


Wisconsin . . . 


60,485,800 


3,485,400 


72,796,800 


20,947,000 


6,278,200 


IF est N. Central 












Minnesota . . . 


81,205,000 


57,197,600 


94,670,000 


32,704,400 


4,682,800 


Iowa 


361,771,200 


13,221,400 


174,036,600 


11,985,000 


802,000 


Missouri .... 


194,253,200 


33,747,400 


29,501,000 


110,600 


227,200 


North Dakota 


8,589,600 


83,193,400 


56,866,800 


22,968,000 


1,126,000 


South Dakota 


64,997,400 


35,849,200 


37,147,200 


16,708,000 


543,400 


Nebraska .... 


163,641,200 


53,165,400 


58,076,200 


2,144,000 


1,289,600 


Kansas 


120,414,800 


94,210,200 


46,819,600 


3,797,000 


567,400 


South Atlantic 












Delaware 


6,539,000 


1,955,200 


121,400 




15,400 


Maryland . . . 


23,532,200 


10,028,800 


1,284,600 


108,200 


395,200 


Virginia 


47,176,000 


9,809,400 


3,848,600 


228,000 


577,800 


West Virginia 


21,251,800 


3,144,400 


2,632,000 




207,800 


North Carolina 


52,581,600 


6,637,000 


4,058,000 




392,600 


South Carolina 


34,697,200 


882,400 


7,404,000 




32,800 


Georgia 


56,807,000 


1,570,000 


8,300,000 




121,200 


Florida 


9,463,200 




760,000 






East S. Central 












Kentucky .... 


94,123,000 


9,796,800 


3,676,200 


82,000 


256,000 


Tennessee ... 


83,310,600 


8,647,200 


6,791,400 


68,800 


200,000 


Alabama .... 


54,065,600 


355,200 


6,222,400 




16,600 


Mississippi . . . 


57,072,000 


60,200 


2,628,400 






ffest S. Central 












Arkansas .... 


49,317,400 




5,174,800 




13,200 


Louisiana .... 


37,649,000 


1,219,000 


984,200 






Oklahoma . . . 


66,555,200 


30,017,800 


21,195,800 


291,600 


57,000 


Texas 


130,146,000 


11,164,200 


25,743,800 


156,800 


31,800 


Mountain 












Montana .... 


758,400 


15,674,800 


19,826,600 


1,589,000 


183,800 


Idaho 


416,200 


13,908,000 


14,716,600 


5,923,000 


68,000 


Wyoming .... 


338,200 


1,983,000 


7,302,200 


358,400 


55,200 


Colorado 


7,553,800 


9,845,600 


11,468,200 


2,638,000 


303,600 


New Mexico . 


2,120,400 


1,274,600 


1,665,600 


85,400 





14 CORN 

TABLE NO. 5— Continued 
PRODUCTION OF CORN AND SMALL GRAIN BY STATES. 

Average for Five Years, 1910-1914 inclusive. (Bushels) 



State 


Corn 

(Bushels) 


Wheat 
(Bushels) 


Oats 

(Bushels) 


Barley 

(Bushels) 


Rye 

(Bushels) 


Mountain — Cont. 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 


512,600 

304,400 

32,000 


781,200 
5,829,800 
1,072,600 


271,400 

4,131,200 

444,400 


1,336,800 

1,044,000 

487,000 


131,200 


Pacific 
Washington . 

Oregon 

California . . . 


881,800 

583,400 

1,922,000 


47,020,000 

17,183,600 

7,166,000 


13,639,200 

13,277,400 

7,335,200 


6,832,600 

3,620,800 

40,194,000 


161,000 
323,200 
303,800 


United States . . 


2,732,457,200 


728,224,600 


1,157,960,800 


183,886,600 


37,196,400 



By referring to Table No. 4 we find that the average yield per acre 
has remained practically constant since the early history of our country. 
Indeed, back as early as 1790, an average yield of thirty bushels was recorded. 
It was possible to raise 100 bushels per acre before 1830, and old Agricul- 
tural Society Reports show that such yields were about as common then 
as they are today. 

Table No, 5 shows an annual production of 2,732,457,000 bushels of 
corn, taking an average for the past five years, 1910 to 1914 inclusive, as com- 
pared with 728,224,600 bushels of wheat, 1,157,960,800 bushels of oats, 
183,886,600 bushels of barley, and 37,196,400 bushels of rye, or a total annual 
production of 2,107,268,400 bushels for all cereals other than corn. 

The census report, together with the report from the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, shows that the corn grown per capita has been stead- 
ily increasing since 1850. However there was a slight decline in the per 
capita production during the last decade. 

Note the following table; 

TABLE NO. 6 

SHOWING POPULATION— TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CORN AND PER 
CAPITA PRODUCTION. 1850 TO 1910. 



Year 


Population 


Total Production r. /^ -^ 
Corn Bus. ^" <^^P"^ 


1850 


23,191,876 
31,443,321 
38,558,471 
50,155,783 
62,622,190 
75,997,873 
93,471,648 


592,071,104 
838,792,742 
760,944,549 
1,754,591,676 
2,122 327,547 
2,666,440,279 
2,886,260,000 


25.5 


1860 


26.6 


1870 


19.7 


1880 


34.9 


1890 


33.8 


1900 


35.0 


1910 


30 8 







PRODUCTION 



IS 



The highest yield per acre ever recorded was produced by Z. J. Drake, 
of Marlboro County, South Carolina, in 1889. On a single acre he grew 
255 bushels of corn, shelled. However, much fertilizer, previous care and 
subsequent cultivation were found to be necessary. Nevertheless, Mr. Drake 
has shown what can be done. 

The average yield in the United States for the past fifty years has been 
25.5 bushels per acre. 

The lowest average yield, for a single year, occurred in 1901. It 
amounted to 16.1 bushels. It will be remembered that that year was ex- 
tremely unfavorable for corn growing from nearly every standpoint. The 
spring was cold and wet and the summer exceedingly warm with little rainfall. 

The highest average yield was produced in 1872. In that year 30.8 
bushels of corn were produced for every acre of ground planted. The 
climatological report shows only an average season. The spring was back- 
ward but July showers and sunshine gave the needed encouragement. 

The following chart shows the average yield from 1866 to 1914. 



CHART NO. 4. 

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE IN THE UNITED STATES, 

1866-1914— Bushels 




NOTE — The yields designated represent the average 
yield for the periods indicated to the left of the chart. 



16 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 7 
SHOWING BY STATES THE AVERAGE YIELD OF CORN PER ACRE— 1866-1910 

(45 year average) 



Rank 



Bushels 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 



Vermont 

New Hampshire 

Massachusetts 

Maine 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Connecticut 

Ohio 

Iowa 

Indiana 

New York 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

Illinois 

Rhode Island 

District of Columbia, 

Minnesota 

Nebraska 

California 

Missouri 

Maryland 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

West Virginia 

Oregon 



35.8 
35.3 
35.3 
33.8 
33.8 
33.6 
33.3 
33.2 
32.1 
31.9 
31.1 
31.0 
31.0 
30.8 
30.8 
30.7 
30.0 
29.9 
29.9 
28.6 
27.4 
27.2 
26.7 
26.3 
26.2 



Rank 



Bushels 



26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 



Indian Territory 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

Wyoming 

Oklahoma 

Delaware 

Washington 

South Dakota _. 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Tennessee 

New Mexico 

North Dakota _. 

Utah 

Texas 

Virginia 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

North Carolina . 

Alabama 

Georgia 

South Carolina 
Florida 



26.0 
25.5 
25.3 
25.2 
24.0 
23.4 
23.3 
23.0 
22.0 
22.9 
22.9 
22.4 
22.3 
22.3 
21.5 
20.5 
20.1 
19.9 
17.1 
15.2 
13.7 
13.0 
11.1 
10.2 
10.2 



NOTE — In the above table, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming show an average 
yield for only twenty-five years ; Oklahoma for fifteen years ; Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, 
Arizona, .Utah, Idaho and Washington for thirty-five years. Other states were figured on a 
forty-five year basis. 



PRODUCTION 



17 



In the preceding Table No. 7 we find the states listed in the order of their 
average yield per acre, covering a 45 year period. Vermont stands 
first with an average yield of 35.8 bushels, and Florida and South Carolina 
take last place with only 10.2 bushels. Thus we see that in order to have 
a creditable average it is necessary for a large number of the states to stand 
high in order to make up for those which tend to pull down the average. 

If any definite conclusions may be derived from the foregoing table 
we might say that the district of highest average yield extends from Maine 
south to Maryland, west, taking in a strip of corresponding width running 
gently southward to California. As we go South or North from this belt we 
find the average yield gradually decreasing. 

Dividing the United States into the following five districts. North 
Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Central, South Central, and Western, the 
following shows the relative average production as found in the last census 
report : 



TABLE NO. 8 
PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES BY 
DISTRICTS, 1850 TO 1900. 



North Atlantic 
South Atlantic 
North Central . 
South Central . 
Western 



1910 


1900 


1890 


1880 


1870 


1860 


3.6 


3.4 


3.4 


5.2 


8.8 


8.0 


9.1 


6.3 


6.2 


7.4 


11.4 


16.0 


63.5 


72.8 


75.3 


73.2 


57.7 


48.4 


23.5 


17.3 


14.8 


14.0 


21.8 


27.4 


.3 


0.2 


0.3 


0.2 


0.3 


0.2 



1850 
9.6 
21.2 
37.5 
31.6 
.01 



At present the North Central district produces nearly two-thirds of the 
entire annual yield of our country. The South Central district follows with 
a trifle less than one-fourth of the total yield. Thus it is seen that the North 
Atlantic and Western sections combined produce but about one-tenth of our 
annual crop. 

The center of production of the corn crop has been moving slowly west- 
ward. Its position since 1850 is shown in the following table: 



1900 



1890 



1880 



1870 



1860 



1850 



North Latitude West Longitude 

. . 39 — 19 — 33 90 — 27 — 6 54 miles southwest ot 

Springfield, Illinois. 
.. 39 — 16 — 57 90 — 26 — 49 55 miles southwest of 

Springfield, Illinois. 
, .. 39 — 28 — 12 89 — 7 — 43 86 miles southwest of 

Springfield Illinois. 
.. 38 — 47 — 13 87—14 — 15 90 miles southwest of 

Indianapolis, Indiana 
. . 38 — 1 — 54 86 — 29 — 4 47 miles southwest of 

New Albany, Indiana 
, , . 39 — 14 — 54 8i_43_38 86 miles southeast of 

Columbus, Ohio. 



Figures taken from Twelfth Census Report. 



18 



CORN 



As we leave the table on production we are prepared for a closer 
study of the progress made by each state during a corresponding period. 
The following diagram shows the rank of each state by consecutive decades 
from 1850 to 1 9 10. It further shows the percentage of total crop produced 
by each state for the same period. 

TABLE NO. 9 




PRODUCTION 



19 



Taking the states ranking from one to five, inclusive, in 1910 we find 
Illinois first. Following the darts to the right we disclose the fact that 
only in 1 890 and 1850 did this state fall below first place in production. 
In 1850, at which time it ranked third, it produced 9.7 per cent of tne 
total production of the United States, and in 1910, 13.2 per cent. Iowa 
stood seventeenth place in rank in 1850, first in 1890, and first in 1913. 
Missouri ranked sixth in 1850, and third in 1910. Nebraska, when first 
reported in i860, ranked thirty-first, and in 1910, ranked fourth. Indiana 
fell from fourth place in 1850 to fifth place in 19 10. 

Considering now just the ten states leading in production in 1913 let 
us note first the following chart: 



CHART NO. 5 



PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE TEN LEADING STATES 1910-1914 IN- 
CLUSIVE—MILLIONS OF BUSHELS 







IOC 


20( 


Per cent of 
) 300 Total Production 


Iowa 


BH 


mm 


^" 


■■ 13.2 


Illinois ... - 


^^ 


^^ 




• 12.7 


IVTissouri - - - - 


^^m 


I^H 


7.1 










Indiana - - - - 


mi[i 


1^ 


6.2 






Nebraska - - - - 


^^^1 


m 


5.1 






Ohio ... - - 


^im 


m 


c n 






^.\j 


Texas 


nn 


■ 


4.7 






Kansas - - - . 
Kentucky . - - . 
Tennessee - - - 


^Bi 


1 


4.4 
'3.4 
3.0 

64.8 


Total 





Together these ten states produced 64.8 per cent or nearly two-thirds of 
the entire crop. Iowa, which was the heaviest producer, furnished 13.2 per 
cent of the entire crop, or 361,771,000 bushels. Illinois stood second with 12.7 
per cent of the entire crop, or 348,846,000 bushels. 



Missouri ranked third with 7.1 per cent of the entire production or 
194,253,000 bushels. Indiana followed in fourth place with 6.2 per cent, or 
180,464,000 bushels. Nebraska in fifth place produced 5.1 per cent of the 
entire crop, or 163,641,000 bushels. Ohio ranked sixth with 5.0 per cent of the 
entire crop, or 151,691,000 bushels. 



20 



CORN 



Texas ranked seventh with 4.7 per cent of the entire crop or 130,146,000 
bushels. Kansas stood eighth with 4.4 per cent, or 120,415,000 bushels. Ken- 
tucky stood ninth with 3.4 per cent, or 94,123,000 bushels. And tenth Ten- 
nessee with 3.0 per cent, or 83,311,000 bushels. The standing of the other 
states may be taken from the preceding charts. 

As has already been intimated, the future increase in the production of 
corn in this country depends upon something more than increased acreage. 
We must now look to our seed selection, cultivation and crop rotation. 



VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP 

The proceeds from a single year's production of corn in the United 
States, considering only the raw product, would pay off our national debt. 
If the entire annual crop were to be moved at one time the transaction would 
take over one-third of all the money in circulation in this country. In 1914 
the crop was valued at $1,722,070,000. If this crop were to be paid for in 
silver it would require twenty- two trains of lOO cars, each of 40,000 pounds 
capacity, to haul the silver. Or if these silver dollars were placed face to 
face as one would arrange them in a pile, it would form a solid silver rope 
over 2,000 miles long. 

CHART NO. 6. 

THE VALUE OF THE CORN CROP AS COMPARED WITH THE 

ENTIRE VALUE OF ALL CEREAL CROPS IN THE 

UNITED STATES, 1866-1914. 

Millions of Dollars 





SOO 1000 


1500 


2000 


2500 


Per cent of value 
All Cereals 


1911-1914 




M 


J 




I 




1 


56.9 














1901-1910 






1 


55.1 




3 










1891-1900 


1 ' 


J 




51.9 










1881-1890 










52.2 










1871-1880 


1 




49.7 








1866-1870 




...J 


54.1 



Black portion of bar represents value of corn. 
Entire length of bar represents value of all 
cereals. 

NOTE — The valuations designated in the above chart represent an av- 
erage for periods indicated to left of chart. 

From the preceding chart we find that the value of the corn crop is greater 
than that of all other cereals combined. For the past fifty years it has aggre- 
gated, approximately, 54 per cent of the entire value of all cereals, including 
corn itself. 



VAI.dF, OF COKN CROP 



21 



flic value (it the ;mnii;il toiii cnip lioni ISdd to I')I4 m;i\ l)c asicrlaiiictl 
l)\ reieniM^ to Table No. 4, on pa^e \2. It is ^oxeriied iarL!,('l\ l)\ i>roiliic 
rion, varyinji slij;htl\ w ith the (leniaiul. 

The highest average price paid tor corn in this country is recorded for 
igoi, and corresponds to the year of h)west average yield. An average taken 
over any number of years for yields per acre and price per bushel shows a 
marked co-relation between the two. Yet this statement must be qualified 
to meet the changing conditions of the times. For instance, the average 
price during the last teti years has been higher than for any previous de- 
cade following 1870. The average yield per acre for the past fifty 
years has been 25.5 bushels, and the average price for the same period has 
been 41.0 cents. This means only $l0.6o total income from each acre de 
voted to corn as an average for iift\ years. 

By referring to the annual report of the Department of Agriculture, 
the average price in the different states varies greatly. Ww highest aver- 
age price for the past year (I'M 4) is recorded for Arizona and it amounted 
to $1.20 per bushel, while the lowest price of 50 cents per bushel is found in 
South Dakota. A close study of this table covering a term of years, shows that 
the prices increase as you move" away from the center of production and vice 
versa, depending considerably, too, upon density of population and shipping 
facilities. 

In comparing the value of the corn crop of the United States with that 
of each of the other cereal crops for the period lOlO to 1^14 inclusive note the 
following chart : 

CHART NO. 7. 

VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP AS COxMPARED WITH 

OTHER CEREAL CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES 

1910-1914 inclusive. Millions of Dollars. 



200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 



Corn 
Wheat 
Oats 
liarley 
Kve - 



m 



Per ciiit 

of Total 

56.8 

22.3 

16.0 

3.9 

1.0 



Let us now consider from a similar standpoint each of the states con- 
cerned in the production of corn, taking an average of five years, 1910-1914 
inclusive. We will note first the comparative value of this crop as related to 
that of all other cereal crops. The states will be considered separately. 
Throughout the corn belt the annual value of the corn crop approximates 
about 25 per cent of the total value of all farm products including livestock, 
dairy products, etc. 

(2) 



22 



CORN 



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24 CORN 



THE PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES 
OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES 



MEXICO 
The Awakening In Agriculture In Mexico 

Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer was commissioned in 1906 to investigate 
Mexican Agricultural conditions. In his report (spring of 1908), he 
recommended the establishment of a Department of Agriculture for 
the nation. The Mexican National Railroad, in the summer of 1908, 
made plans to put on special corn trains, such as has been done over 
the corn belt of the United States. 

A great many ranchers in Chihuahua and Durango have for some 
time employed improved methods and selected their seed corn. Presi- 
dent Diaz was always interested in the farmers. A leader in the 
greater movement is Mr. Zeferino Dominguez, a Mexican owner of 
large haciendas in the Northeast Mexico. His trips to the United 
States have resulted in the introduction of better seed. A great many 
students from the northern states of Mexico have graduated from the 
Agricultural Colleges of the United States. The greatest good will 
come with increased facilities for irrit-ation. 



The Peonage System 

All work of an agricultural nature is done by the peon or native. 
The landlords own very large tracts of land. Many ranches contain 
one million acres. Ten thousand acre haciendas are common. These 
owners furnish each peon family with an adobe house, a yoke of 
oxen, seed, and such rude agricultural implements as are considered 
necessary. The peon is charged with one-half the seed, and the rent- 
mg price of the oxen. Any food bought is charged against him at 
the store which appears on the larger ranches. At the end of the year 
settlements are made after the landlord has deducted all advances 
made to the peon during the season. Farm laborers who are paid 
'iirectly receive certain daily rations and ten dollars Mexican (five 
'Hilars gold), a total of fifteen dollars Mexican, per year. 



PRINCIPAL CORN (JROWINCJ CX)UNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. 25 

The Tortilla, the Bread of the Natives of Mexico 

The "tortilla" or "corn cake" of Mexico is the "staff of Hfe" of 90 
per cent of the native Mexican people. The total annual consump- 
tion of tortillas is valued at $76,560,000 gold. 

The tortilla is made from shelled corn which has been put in an 
earthenware jar and covered with rather strong lime water and 
allowed to soak over night. The swollen grains are then ground be- 
tween mill stones. The hull, being very tender because of soaking, is 
ground with the kernel. Every town of one thousand inhabitants has 
a mill of this kind. The ground mass comes out as a doughy "massa." 
During the grinding, cold water is slowly poured on the meal through 
the mill. Hence the ground material is about three-fourths greater in 
bulk than the original swelled kernels. 

The regulation size of the tortillas is from four to five inches in 
diameter. They are served with strips of mutton or beef and seasoned 
with salt and "salsa," or "sauce." The baking which requires but three 
minutes is done over charcoal burners. 



The Production of Corn in Mexico 

Mexico is second among all corn growing countries from the stand- 
point of acreage, yet the production is insufficient for domestic needs 
and several million bushels are imported annually from the United 
l^tates. Some sections, sucli as ("hiliualuia and Colima, seem well 
suited naturally to corn ])ro(luction, while in other localities irrigation 
is essential. 

The temperature may fall below the freezing point in iJecemher. 
but the mean annual temperature ranges from 60 to 7S degrees, l*'ahr- 
enheit. The rainfall varies from about 10 inches in Lower California 
to 50 or 55 inches in Colima. The average yield of corn is given at 15 
to 40 bushels per acre. The Mint types are grown mostly, but in some 
sections a soft starchy variety is produced. The price per bushel 
ranges from 56 cents to $1.40, or even higher. 

The method followed by the Indians in corn production is very 
l)riniitive. First, the land is burned over to get rid of trees, brush and 
weeds. The corn is then i)lantc(l without further preparation of the 
land. A pointed stick serves to make the hole into which the seed is 
drf)pped and co\ered over with a little dirt, either by hand or foot. 
I'erhaps the weeds are cut once (hiriiiL; the season with a hoe. Aside 
Irom this, no eulli\ation is sjixen. 



26 CORN 

In other places, wooden plows, or even disc plows are used on 
large farms and ranches. One man plows the soil, then makes a fur- 
row in which a boy alternately drops three grains of corn and two of 
beans. When the corn is a few inches high, it is banked up and two 
or three cultivations are given with the plow. The corn, when ripe, 
is topped over the ear, and the toppings used for fodder. After the 
first frost, the ears are stripped by hand and thrown into a basket car- 
ried upon the back of a peon. Cattle are then turned into the field to 
pick what is left. 

In addition to the flint and dent varieties, some pod corn is grown. 
"Mais de Riego," or irrigated corn is planted after the frost when the 
soil is warm, during the month of March. The growing period is of 
seven months, and produces, as a rule, from 300 to 500 bushels of corn 
for each bushel planted. The "mais poblano," planted during the early 
rains in May, needs four months to grow and produces as much as 200 
bushels of corn for each bushel planted. The "mais temporal," or 
"pepitills" is seeded during the regular rains of June and July and is 
harvested three months afterward, producing from 50 to 100 bushels 
for each bushel planted. 

CORN PRODUCTION IN SOUTH AMERICA 

Aside from Argentine Republic and Brazil, very little data is 
available on corn production. In 1912 Chile reported one and a half 
million bushels, and Uruguay eight million bushels. However, some 
corn is grown in practically all of the South American countries, 
mostly of the flint type on account of the weevil which causes consid- 
erable damage in the grain when stored. 

Argentine Republic 

Argentine Republic extends over 2,300 miles of latitude. Of the 
four provinces, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, and Entre Rios, the 
first two are the largest corn producers. 

These areas lie within the limits of 35 and 30 degrees south latitude. 
However, some good corn is grown as. far north as 24 degrees south 
latitude. 

The average annual temperature at Buenos Aires from 1856 fo 1875 
was 62.9 degrees, from 1876 to 1896, 61.5 degrees, and from 1897 to 
1900, 63.1 degrees. These represent quite fairly the averages of the 
principal corn regions. The temperature in this part of the corn belt 



AR(;F.N'riNF'. Ri'.prnr.ic 27 

seldom rises above 95 degrees, but seems much higher because of the 
excessive humidity of the atmosphere. 

The corn district of Argentine has an average annual rainfall of 
31.52 to 39.40 inches, which is quite evenly divided between the two 
seasons. 

The corn land, being owned by wealthy landlords, is farmed by 
renters or "colonists" who have no serious ideas of home-building. 
The difTerent ranches are specialized in different crops. Alfalfa or 
wheat may be grown entirely for a series of years. Rents range from 
$1.25 to $4.50 per acre. Usually one-half of this must be paid in 
advance. 

Corn planting begins August 15th and may continue as late as 
January 15th. The safest time, however, is September 15th to De- 
cember 31st. The early planted corn usually yields more heavily. The 
rows range from 10 to 36 inches apart. During the last few years a 
number of American corn planters are being introduced, but all of 
them are used simply for drilling, no checking being done. When the 
plants are two or three inches in height the land is harrowed. Nothing 
more is done until the corn is 12 inches high, when an implement with 
a double mold-board like a lister is run through and the rows hilled up. 

No fear of frost presses the farmers in regard to selecting the seed 
corn early, and the ears often remain on the stalk for two months 
after matured. However, the farmers are very anxious to get the 
corn gathered and shelled in order to reach the seaboard before the 
wet season begins. Hence, some years a great deal of immature corn 
is shipped out. In 1902 Argentina exported S5.75 per cent of the corn 
produced. With development in the packing and slaughtering meth- 
ods more corn will be fed at home. 

In Argentina corn culture has in recent years made great strides. 
From three million acres in 1900, plantings have been rapidly ex- 
tended, and a recent estimate of the Argentine Department of Agri- 
culture puts the land seeded for the crop maturing in the spring of 
1914 at 10,250,000 acres. A distinctive feature of corn growing in 
Argentina is that the bulk of the crop is raised for export. Preemi- 
nently a pastoral country, the vast fields of alfalfa, and a mild climate 
that permits grazing in a great part of the pastoral zone practically the 
year round, minimize the demand for corn as an animal food ; consid- 
erably less than 100 million bushels meets the annual domestic re- 
quirements for all purposes. As during the past two years the pro- 
duction has amounted respectively, to 296 million and 197 million 



28 CORN 

bushels, Arj^oiitiiiu lias ("igured as the most important single source 
of supply for the great importing nations of Europe. Exports to all 
countries out of the banner crop oi 1912 amounted to 190 million 
bushels. If the present rate of increase in culture be maintained, the 
Republic would doubtless be in a situation eventually to supply single 
handed the entire import demand of all European states. 

Within the last few years increasing quantities of corn have been 
imported into the United States from the Argentine, most of which 
has been consigned to the Corn Products Refining Co., of New York, 
for manufacturing purposes. The importations, however of the 1913 
crop have exceeded those of former years, the total importations from 
July 1, V)\3, to February 13, 1914, as reported by Bradstreet's being 
7,132,980 bushels, apj^roximately <S5 per cent of which was discharged 
at Atlantic ports, and the remainder at Gulf ports. 

Argentine being the corn belt of the Southern Hemisphere, the 
crop matures approximately six months in advance of corn in the 
United States, so that export shipments begin during the early i)art 
of June. The duration of the voyage from the Argentine to the 
United States under favorable conditions is approximately 30 days. 

While the total production of corn in the Argentine under the 
most favorable conditi-ons is considerably below the production in the 
state of Illinois, less than half of the Argentine crop is consumed 
within the Republic, so that the Argentine exports have greatly ex- 
ceeded those of the United States during the past few years. 

The Argentine corn is handled in burlap bags containing from 
130 to 135 pounds, in direct contrast to the corn from the United 
States, which is exported mainly in bulk. The most common method 
of discharging cargoes at United States ports is to hoist with crane 
and tackle from 12 to 15 bags at a time and shift them to barges or 
lighters alongside the vessel, where the corn is inspected as the bags 
are opened. From seven to fifteen days are usually required to unload 
a cargo, depending largely on the condition and quality of corn and 
the weather. 

Corn as grown in Argentina consists almost exclusively of the 
hard, flinty varieties with medium to small kernels, mostly yellow in 
color. North American varieties like the Hickory King, a white corn, 
and Queen, a yellow variety, have been tried with success. The char- 
acter of the corn, having both small cobs and small kernels, results in 
a much lower moisture content in the Argentina shelled corn than is 
normally contained in the large dent varieties of the United States. 



ARGKNTINK RKPL HLIC 



29 



As a result of the small size of the kernels, the Argentina corn can not 
carry, without increased danger of deterioration, as high a percentage 
of water as the larger dent corns of the United States. On the other 
hand, the hard and firm texture of the Argentina corn is such that it 
can he "conditioned" to much better advantage than our dent corns. 
During the summer of 1912, through the courtesies of the Corn 
Products Refining Company and the grain insi)ection department of 
the New York Produce Exchange, several cargoes of corn from Ar- 
gentina were examined at the time of discharge at the port of New 
York. The average results of mechanical analyses on 157 samples 
from four of the cargoes, representing a total of 638,000 bushels, are 
contained in Table 11. The data shown in this table represents new 
corn of the crop of 1912. 

TABLE NO. 11 

*SHOWING AMOUNT OF MOISTURE IN ARGENTINA CORN. 















1 






1 <- 






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A_ 
B_ 
C_ 
D. 



__Oct. 19 
._July 8 
__Aug. 4 
.__Aug. 5 
Total 



35 


55 


27 


48 


45 


28 


34 


26 




157 



180,000 
260,000 
66,000 
132,000 
638,000 



14.55 
14.80 
17.02 
15.43 



60.87 
60.10 
57.75 
60.01 
60.05 



93.84 
95.28 
63.74 
90.02 
90.50 



0.10 
.17 
.28 
.17 
.16 



Average moisture content of four cargoes, 15.10 per cent. 
From Table 11 it will be seen that the average moisture content 
of the total 638,000 bushels was 15.1 per cent, the weight per bushel 
more than 60 pounds, the percentage of sound corn 90.5 and the dirt, 
chafT, cob, etc., approximately one-sixth of one per cent. 

During the months of December, 1913 and January, 1914, samples 
to the number of 591 were secured from 16 different cargoes, of Ar- 
gentina corn as discharged at New York and at Gulf ports. The aver- 
age moisture content of these samples (old corn of the 1913 crop) was 
13.7 per cent, or 6.6 per cent less than the average moisture content of 
corn shipped from country stations in central Illinois during Decem- 
lier. l')13. and January, 1914, the latter being new corn of the 1913 
crop. I'Vom the standpoint of moisture content alone this represents 
a fliti'crencc in value of a])proximately 5i5 cents per bushel, based on a 
New York price of about 70 cents per bushel, not giving consideration 
to the increased danger of deterioration of high moisture corn. While 
the average moisture content of the Argentina corn is low, a consider- 

*Agiicultural Outlook, March 18, 1914. 



30 



CORN 



able quantity is damaged, musty, sour and heating when discharged. 
This is evidenced by the fact that of the 591 samples previously re- 
ferred to, the maximum moisture content was 41.6 per cent, the mini- 
mum being 9.2 per cent. 

A considerable quantity of Argentina corn is likewise infested 
with weevil. Samples of screenings from practically all of the cargoes 
have been submitted to Dr. F. H. Chittenden, in charge of Truck- 
Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations of the Bureau of En- 
tomology, but no new species have been found. 

A wide diversity of opinion exists as to the chemical composition 
of Argentina corn as compared with the dent varieties of the United 
States. While the data available are not sufficient to justify the draw- 
ing of any definite conclusions, the results of the chemical analyses of 
a limited number of samples of Argentina corn is superior, from the 
standpoint of chemical composition, to our dent corn as loaded for 
export at our Atlantic and Gulf ports as shown in Table 12. 

Table 12 shows the average results of the chemical analyses of 98 
samples of Argentina corn, representing four cargoes with a total of 
638,000 bushels of the crop of 1912, as discharged at New York, to- 
gether with the average of the analyses of 129 samples of North Amer- 
ican corn, representing two cargoes of the 1910 crop and two cargoes 
of the 1911 crop with a total of 910,146 bushels as loaded for export. 

STABLE NO. 12 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FOUR CARGOES OF ARGEN- 
TINA FLINT CORN AS DISCHARGED AT NEW YORK 
AND FOUR CARGOES OF NORTH AMERICAN DENT 
CORN AS LOADED FOR EXPORT, CALCULATED 
TO A WATER FREE BASIS. 



I T E M 



CornCrop of 1912 as Im- 
ported at New York 



North America 

Corn Crops of 1910 and 1911 

as Loaded for Export 



Ash 


1.72 

5.52 


1.43 


Ether extract (oil) 


4.07 


Protein 


11.01 


9.81 


Crude fiber 


1.99 


2.18 


Pentosans 


6.02 


6.19 


Invert sugar 


.30 


.38 


Sucrose 


1.08 
.33 


1.13 


Acid calculated as acetic 


.28 


Undetermined 


72.03 


74.53 



Chemical analyses of tlie individnal sample made by Cattle Food and Grain Laboratory of 
the r.ureau of Chemistry. 

From Table 12 it will be seen that the ether extract or oil was 



Agricultural Outlook, March IS, 1914. 



BRAZIL 31 

approximately 1.5 per cent greater in the Argentina corn than in the 
United States corn, while the protein was 1.2 per cent greater. In 
the consideration of these analyses it is necessary to note that they 
represent commercial corn and are therefore not comparable with the 
analyses shown in text books, which are based on selected, hand 
shelled samples.* 

Brazil 

Brazil is a republic of South America. The southeastern portion 
is mountainous. The central northeastern and western parts are oc- 
cupied by a great plateau with the low plains of the Amazon to the 
north and those of Paraguay to the west. This country is awakening 
to the need of diversified agriculture, and it is certain that more corn 
will be grown there in the future. In many parts of Brazil two crops 
can be grown and high yields are easily obtained. The average yield 
of corn grown per acre is larger than that of the United States. The 
average price is about seventy-five cents per bushel. The flint type 
is almost universally grown. The temperature and rainfall is quite 
\ariable and cultivation practices rather crude. There are several ex- 
perimental farms in operation, however, and it is certain that corn 
growing will receive a stimulating impetus in the future. 



CORN PRODUCTION IN EUROPE 

In the Eastern hemisphere the principal maize growing regions 
are southern Europe, Asia, the Mediterranean countries of Africa and 
the Union of South Africa. 

In southern Europe the crop is grown for the grain on an expanse 
of territory extending from west to east across the entire continent 
and reaching northward from the Mediterranean and Black Seas to 
latitudes including Switzerland and a small part of southern Ger- 
many. The value of the luxuriant semi-tropical foliage of the plant 
has, moreover, extended its cultivation for fodder into countries where 
the seasons of warm sunshine are too short for the grain to mature, 
and hence maize is grown for forage to a greater or less extent in 
many countries of northern Europe even as far north as Scotland. 

In southern Europe the crop is cultivated for grain on an aggre- 
gate of about 30 million acres, the total annual production usually rang- 
ing between 600 million and 700 million bushels. The variety raised 

*By J. W. T. Duvel, Crop Technologist, in Agricultural Outlook Mar. IS, 1914. 



32 CORN 

is for the most part the small grained yellow flint, designated by 
English-speaking people as "round maize" in distinction from the 
"flat" or large-grained dent variety, consisting of white and yellow 
mixed, which reaches European markets from the United States. 

In Portugal, corn, known in the vernacular as "milho," is cultivated 
on a much larger scale than any other cereal and constitutes, among 
other uses, the chief food of the peasant class. 

Spain and France have each over a million acres under maize. 
Concentrated in the northern part of the former country and southern 
part of the latter there are extensive districts where it is the chief grain 
cultivated and the principal reliance of the peasants for human food. 
"Granoturco," the Italian name for corn, is grown annually in Italy 
on an extent of about four million acres, and in two provinces, Lom- 
bardy and Ventia, on a somewhat more extensive scale than is wheat ; 
polenta, a dish prepared from corn, is in parts of the kingdom the staff 
of life of the masses. 

Upward of a million bushels are raised annually in Greece, and 
in 1910 the annual output of European Turkey was officially returned 
as 22 million bushels. 

Corn culture in Europe, however, is largely centralized in a 
group of countries comprising Austria Hungary, Roumania, Servia, 
Bulgaria, and in the southern governments of Russia. In this terri- 
tory upward of 20 million acres are planted annually and the normal 
yield is approximately 50 million bushels. 

The important position the crop occupies in the agriculture of 
these countries is indicated by the fact that in Hungary proper, the 
principal corn-growing country of Europe, and in Bulgaria, the acre- 
age is second only to that of wheat, while in Roumania, where the 
grain is known as "porumb," and in Servia, where it is called "cu- 
curaz," it is more extensive than that of any other cereal. 

Excepting Austria-Hungary, whose annual production is a few 
million bushels short of domestic requirements, corn is grown in the 
rest of this territory in surplus quantities. Aggregate exports usually 
ranging between 50 million and 80 million bushels a year, are made 
from Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia and Russia to Austria-Hungary, 
Italy, Spain and chiefly to the non-producing states of north Europe.* 

The total production of corn in Austria-Hungary in 1910 exceeded 
that of 1890 1)y 50 per cent. Hungary produces the greater part of the 
total crop, the soil in the western part of this latter country being ex- 
ceedingly fertile. The climate is typically continental : cold in winter 

"Chas. M. Daughcrty in Agriciiltural Outlook Araich IS, 1914. 



ASIA 33 

and hot in summer. The mean annual temperature at lUidapest varies 
from 0.7 (k\q,"rees C. in January to 20.4 degrees C. in July, in I lungary 
73.1 j)er cent of the population is engaged in agriculture, while in 
Austria the ]>ercentage is 55. In .Austria ])ri)per .U.45 ])er cent of the 
land is arable. 



CORN PRODUCTION IN ASIA 

Outside of America and Europe the most extensive corn-growing 
area in the world is in Asia, notably in Turkey, southern Asiatic Rus- 
sia, British India, French Indo-China, the Philippines, China and 
Japan. Although the crop in none of these countries attains the pro- 
portions of a principal one, there are localities in most of them where 
its culture is of great local importance. 

In Asiatic Turkey an of^cial report indicated over 900,000 acres 
under cultivation in 1911, and in 1911 a small area of 150,000 acres was 
returned in Asiatic Russia — in Ferghana, Samarkand and Syr-Daria. 

In British India, where in some districts food made from corn is 
the chief article of native diet, over six million acres are planted yearly. 

An annual area of over one million acres is grown in the Philip- 
pines and upward of 130,000 acres in Japan. 

Statistical record of the area and yield in China and Indo-China is 
non-existant. It is known, however, that the grain is grown to a con- 
siderable extent in parts of China, and in the northern part its value as 
a human and animal food is supplemented by the general use of the 
stalks as fuel. In the French colony, Indo-China, the growing popu- 
larity of the culture is indicated by the fact that the annual imports 
into the mother country from this possession increased from 571,000 
to 3.710,000 bushels during the period 1906 to 1911. 



CORN PRODUCTION IN AFRICA 

Corn is grown quite generally on the Continent of Africa, but, ex- 
cepting that it is an important article of food among the native tribes 
of the central colonies, definite information respecting the extent of its 
culture is limited to the countries along the Mediterranean and to the 
Union of South Africa. 

In Egypt, the principal producing country, the area (about 1,900,- 
000 acres) is more extensive than that of cotton ; the grain constitutes 
the chief food of the Egyptian fellah and enters almost wholly into 
domestic consumption. 



34 CORN 

Small areas arc also culliwated in Tunis. Algeria, Tripoli and 
Morocco. 

In the Union of South Africa the raising of "mealies", the local 
name for corn, has in late years been attracting much attention ; the 
acreage, notably in Natal, has been much extended and, at the taking 
of the census of 1911, the total South African production was found to 
have increased to over 30 million bushels. In normal years a few mil- 
lion bushels are now available for export. 

Corn, it may be added, is grown on a small scale in the northern 
latitudes of Australia and New Zealand, and in many islands through- 
out the world for which few statistics are extant. 



COLLATERAL READING 

In extending the research relative to the history and past produc- 
tion of corn, most excellent references may be found in the old files 
of the Iowa State Library at Des Moines, in the Historical Building. 
A complete file of old Agricultural Reports and farm journals, with a 
splendid botanical library, furnish an abundance of material for further 
work. Anyone who is not located within range of this library, how- 
ever, may do well in other state or national libraries or in any private 
library where special efl:orts have been made in securing and cata- 
loging data bearing on farm problems. 



niRKCTINXJ CULTIVAl'ION 



35 




CHAPTER III. 



CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL CHAR- 
ACTERISTICS 



CLASSIFICATION 

The Polymorphic species (Zca mays) is divided into six distinct 
sub-groups by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant.* His classification is based upon 
an extended examination of almost 800 varieties. This grouping is 
founded on the internal structure of the kernels of the cultivated 
varieties and the presence of a husk on each kernel in the so-called 
aboriginal form. 

The following species-group^s are established: 

I. ZEA TUNICATA— The Pod Corn. This is also known as 
primitive corn. In this group each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk, 
and the ear thus formed is also enclosed in husks. The seed is sup- 
plied by our seedsmen for growing as a curio^-ity. Instances are on 
record where seemingly the dent corn has reverted to this type. The 
kernel itself is rather hard and flinty. 

II. ZEA EVERTA.— The Pop Corns. This species-group is 
characterized by the excessive proportion of the corneous endosperm 
and the small size of the germs, kernels and ears. The best varieties 
have a corneous endosperm throughout. This gives the property of 
popping, which is the complete eversion or turning inside out of the 
kernel, through the explosion of the contained moisture on the appli- 
cation of heat. This type is very hardy and the embryo has wonder- 
ful germinative vitality. Its culture is an important industry in cer- 
tain districts near the larger cities. 

III. ZEA INDURATA— The FUnt Corns. A species-gioup 
readily recognized by the occurrence of a starchy endosperm enclosed 
in a corneous endosperm, as shown in a split seed. This corneous 
endosperm varies in thickness with varieties. It is grown farther 
north than any of the other types. The kernel is therefore usually 

♦Bulletin No. 57 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



BorANRAr. C'l.ASSlFK'A'riON 37 

very shallow, containing very little white starch and maturing in a 
short time. There are generally eight rows to the cob, though some 
varieties have twelve. The stover is more valuable than that of dent 
corn because it lacks woodiness. 

IV. ZEA INDENTATA.— The Dent Corns. A species-group 
recognized by the presence of corneous endosperm at the sides of the 
kernel, the starchy endosperm reaching to the summit. By the drying 
and shrinkage of the starchy matter, the summit of the kernel is 
drawn in, or together, and indented in various forms. The ears are 
much larger and have more rows than flint corn. The kernels are 
deeper, less glassy, with sharper corners, and more angular in shape. 
The dent corn is the corn of the corn belt, and the corn of commerce. 

V. ZEA AMYLACEA.— The Soft Corns. This species-group is 
at once recognized by the absence of corneous endosperm. Through 
the uniformity of the shrinkage in ripening there is usually no inden- 
tation, although this occasionally occurs. In the southern regions this 
corn is grown almost exclusively. This is the mummy corn of Chile 
and Peru. 

VI. ZEA SACCHARATA.— The Sweet Corns. A well defined 
species-group characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of 
the kernels and their more crinkled, wrinkled, or shriveled condition. 
The first sweet corn cultivated in America was secured from the Sus- 
quehanna Indians in 1779, by Captain Richard Begnall, who accom- 
panied General Sullivan on his trip to subdue the Six Nations. 

VII. ZEA AMYLEA SACCHARATA.— The Starchy Sweet 
Corns. The upper half of kernel is horny and transparent, the lower 
part, starchy. It is of little importance. 

Zea canina (Watson) sometimes known as Maiz de Coyoto, or a 
wild corn, is a hybrid form from fourth or fifth generation of a cross 
between Teosinte and Black Mexican Corn. 

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN 

Indian Corn is an annual, herbaceous plant, belonging to the fam- 
ily of grasses (Gramineae). The botanical name (Zea mays) is 
derived from the Greek word, "Zao," meaning "to live," while "mays" 
is believed to come from the Livonic word "Mayse/' meaning "bread, 
stafif of life." 

PLANT STRUCTURE. Many minute cells compose the body of 
a plant. These cells vary in shape and size in different parts of the 



38 



CORN 



same plant and in different plants. The cell is filled with a living 
material called protoplasm. The greater part of protoplasm is cyto- 
plasm, a colorless material of granular character. In addition to the 
cytoplasm, the nucleus, or governing portion of the protoplasm, is 
generally located in the center of the cell. Nucleoplasm forms the 
major part of the nucleus, although the vital principle contained 
therein is the chromatin. Cells multiply, that is, development takes 
place at the growing point, by the process of cell division. A corre- 
sponding segmentation of the nucleus takes place simultaneously, 
whereby the new cell has all the essential cell elements. Cellulose, a 
firmer material, constitutes the cell wall, which is usually very thin. 

NATURE OF ROOT GROWTH. Root growth takes place at a 
point just back of the cap, known as the growing point. The tin, 
which is pushed through the soil by the constant addition of cells at 
the growing point is made up of harder cells and acts as a protection 
to that portion. As it wears away, new cells are supplied from behind 
by the growing point. 




THE FFRROITS ROOT SYSTEM OF CORN. 



Maii\ ot ihe finer cross roots were lost in removing the plant frmn tlic 
Note lu)\v the roots extend outward and downward. 



ROOT CiROW'l'Il 39 

Corn, which is merely a giant form of grass, has a fine, fibrous 
root system, like all members of the grass family. The root system 
is not characterized by any tap root such as is found in clover. 

In the early stages the roots develop laterally. The North Dakota 
Experiment Station found that *30 days after planting the roots from 
adjacent stalks had met and interlaced, and that most of the roots 
were within the first eight inches of the surface of the soil and that 
few had penetrated to a depth of 12 inches. Six inches from the hill 
the main roots lay 2h inches below the surface, while midway be- 
tween the hills, they were 43^ inches below the surface. The latter 
point should be especially noted, for it is a strong argument in favor 
of shallow cultivation. 

An examination 55 days after planting, at the last cultivation, 
when the plants were 4^ feet high, showed that the main roots had 
reached a depth of 2}^ feet. Many of the lateral roots extended the 
entire distance from hill to hill (three feet eight inches), inclining 
most of the way, and when about 3 to 3^ feet from the hill dropping 
almost vertically downward. The lateral and vertical roots gave 
off numerous branches which rebranched again and again, filling the 
soil to a depth of two feet with a perfect network of roots. The lateral 
roots sent up numerous vertical feeders to within two inches of the 
surface. 

At 90 days from planting, or soon after the frost had killed the 
corn, another sample showed that the ground to a depth of 33/2 feet 
was fully occupied by roots. The conclusions were that after corn is 
ten inches high, it should not be cultivated deeply because of injury to 
surface roots. 

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS. The roots which 
arise from the base of the stalk are called "primary" roots. Often in 
this same class are also placed those springing from the first two or 
three nodes. The "secondary" root system appears in checked corn 
during the time of "laying by;" that is, when the winds of summer 
begin to "jostle" the corn plants. In trying to support themselves 
these roots are sent out. They may appear on nodes as high up as 
the seventh, and in listed corn, even higher. These roots do not usu- 
ally appear on more than two nodes above the ground. They act both 
as guys and stays. Before entering the soil a small enlargement 
forms at the end. On entering a moist soil this thickened portion 
becomes mucilaginous and may be an aid in holding the root in the 
soil until it forms a little bunch of roots of its own. The brace roots 
aid in the support of the plant and absorb small quantities of plant 

* Bulletin 43, N. D. Experiment Station. 



40 CORN 



food. From 22 to 28 brace roots usually appear at each node. If the 
weather is stormy and the corn has a tendency to blow over, these 
brace roots grow very rapidly. 




BRACE ROOTS 
Stalk showing brace roots at nodes above the ground. 
Note also the rudimentary roots just appearing at 
the two upper nodes. 

STRUCTURE. The outermost layer of a young root is a single 
cylinder of cells termed the "piliferous layer." This layer, when near 
the newly formed tip of the root, is the absorbing surface for soil 
moisture and plant food. The root hairs are merely projecting por- 
tions of the individual cells of this layer. The fact that this layer is 
absorptive dififerentiates it from the epidermis of the stem. 

Immediately beneath the piliferous layer is the "cortex" which is 
thick and consists chiefly of parenchymatous or thin-walled cells. The 



S TKrC ITRI". OF ROO I' 



41 




A longitudinal section through the root 
tip of shepherd's purse, showing the 
central vascular axis (pH, surrounded 
by the cortex (p), outside of the cor- 
tex the epidermis (e) which disap- 
pears in the older parts of the root, 
and the prominent root-cap (c). 



office of llioso cells is merely to give the root streiijTth and form, vvliile 
through them and between them the moisture absorbed by the outer 
layer reaches the central cylinder within. 

'Jlie innermost layer of cells of 
the cortex forms a very complete 
and very rigid cylinder, enclosing 
the central ry/i/ulcr. M'his endodermis 
consists of regularly formed, closely- 
fitting cells which prevent the escape 
of plant food on its course upward 
through the central cylinder of older 
roots. In younger plants, however, 
the jjassage of moisture from the 
surface to the cylinder is not 
hindered. 

The pcricyclc, tlmugh not very 
distinct in many roots, is the outer 
cell layer of the central cylinder. 
P^rom single cells within it, arise all 
secondary roots. By pushing their 
way outward through the cortex and surface layer, and by repeated 
cell divisions they soon elongate and become tributary feeders. This 
internal origin of the branch roots can be readily seen by peeling ofT 
the cortex, which lays bare the attachment. 

The central cylinder consists for the most part of tubes which are 
of use in carrying the plant food upward into the stem and leaves. 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROOT GROWTH. The factors 
affecting root growth are the factors which afifect the yield of the crop. 

(i) In order that the younger and more tender rootlets may 
push through the soil, its ^structure must be quite iine. .A root will 
not cross a large interspace between lumps of earth. 

(2) Corn roots draw almost entirely upon the capillary water of 
the soil. In case of extreme drought they may possibly use some of 
the hygroscopic moisture. Very little, if any of the gravity water, that 
which is drained from the soil in tiling, is utilized by the plant. 

(3) Roots avoid a cold soil and if the ground is of a low tem- 
perature will feed near the surface. 

(4) The entrance of oxygen into the soil is necessary to insure 
the spread of root growth. 

(5) Roots seek and require the presence of plant food in the soil. 

*The words structure and texture are often used synonymously. The structural peculiarities 
are those which interest the geologist, the textural belong more properly to the mineralogist. 
Hut the usages of geologists differ in tlie employment of terms of this kind, and there can he no 
precise limit drawn, separating structures from textures. (.Century luicyclopedia.) 



42 



CORN 




1. Young root of a pea. h Root-hairs of the piliferous layer; c root-cap. 
(Twice natural size.) 

2. Transverse section through a young root of a pea near h in 1. h Root- 
hairs; c cortex; p piliferous layer; e endodermis ; n pericycle; w wood 
strand; x its protoxylem; b bast strand. (Enlarged 48 diameters.) 



STALK. — Structure of Stem. The stem varies in height from i8 
inches to 24 feet, according to variety and conditions influencing 
growth, as climate and soil. It is made up of a series of sections 
known as internodes, which vary in length from a few inches at the 
base to more than a foot at the top. They are separated from each 
other by short, thick joints or nodes. The length of internodes is less 
at the base for the purpose of strengthening the stalk. Being longer 
at the upper end, the stalk has more chance to flex in the breeze with- 
out breaking. The average circumference of the nodes measured on 
ten stalks was about as follows: Second internode above root crown, 
3.7 inches ; first internode below the ear, 3.3 inches ; first internode 
above the ear, 2.875 inches. 

The stem of the corn plant consists structurally of 

( I ) A very thin layer, the epidermis, on the outside. This con- 
sists of a one layered cylinder of cells. The surface is very smooth 
and glossy, being impervious to moisture. The idea that a corn stalk 
"drinks in" the showers is erroneous, as shown by this impenetrable 
coat. On the other hand, this covering lessens the evaporation of 



GROWTH OF STKMS 



43 



moisture from within. Being- smooth, it affords no place for the 
lodgment of smut spores. Insects find difficulty in inserting their 
sucking mouth into these parts. 

(2) The woody wall, which is really a layer consisting of a close 
union of a great number of fibro<'ascular bundles. In the small 

grains and grasses, this woody 
wall is the only supporting 
structure in the stem. From 
each node, where a leaf grows 
out, a number of these bundles 
leave the wall to extend into 
the leaf to feed it. The more 
rank the growth, the greater 
is the number of these bundles 
in the wall. 

(3) The pith is composed 
of parenchyma cells and fills 
the center of a corn stem. With 
a given weight of material, a 
hollow column is stronger than 
a solid one in withstanding 
pressure, as heavy winds in 
summer, although when exces- 
sive weight is borne by such a 
column the sides are liable to 
collapse. To meet the former 
condition, the stems of cereals 
are hollow, while in the latter 
case the stalk of corn has a 
light filler. The cells of the 
pith are very large and loosely 
arranged, and although they do 
not transport moisture, they do 
act as reservoirs in time of 
drought. During the final 
stages of maturity, after frost 
has killed the leaves and the 
stalk loses its color, the ker- 
nels on the ear are fed for some 
The pith has one other func- 




Section of corn-stalk showing pith, 
vascular bundles, and epidermis. 



fibro- 



time from the plant food stored here 

lion, to hold in place the fil^ro vascular bundles. 

(4) The fibro-vascular bundles arc the circulatory ducts for the 



44 



CORN 



raw plant food drawn from the roots, and the distributing canals for 
the cell sap which has been manufactured therefrom in the leaves. 
These bundles are quite woody and fibrous and can be seen in an old 
corn stalk, appearing very much like threads. These tubes, of which 




Fibro Vascular Bundle. Cross-section of a closed collateral bundle from the 
stem of corn, showing the xylem with annular (r), spiral (s), and pitted (g) 
vessels; the phloem containing sieve vessels (v). and separated from the 
xylem by no intervening cambium; both xylem and phloem surrounded by a 
mass of sclerenchyma (fibers); and invcstinR vesst-ls nnd fibers the paren- 
chyma (p) of the pith-like tissue through which the bundles are distributed. — 
After Sachs. 



.\kk.\\<;i:mi:\i' oi i i.a\i:s is 

these biuidles are composed, are large and numerous. This helps lo 
account tor the rapidity of growth of corn under favorable conditions. 

Growth of Stems. An examination of a longitudinal section of a 
growing corn stem will show that above each node the pith and fibro- 
vascular bundles are of a darker green color. The pith in the upper 
part of the internodcs shows a pure white color and is often rather 
dry, while at the base of the internodes the cells are full of sap. These 
cells, as well as the extreme tip of the stem, constitute the growing 
points of the cornstalk. The possession of 14 to 20 such points 
enables a corn stalk to lengthen rapidly during the growing season. 
As the stems come out of the ground, their upward course is like the 
unfolding of a telescope. Such rapid extension gives corn a chance 
to outdo its competitors, the weeds, in the race for supremacy in the 
field. Corn has an cii(h)i:;cjioiis stem. Growth in diameter takes place 
on the inside, rather than by adding layers on the outside, as in the 
case of exogenous plants, such as the oak. 

LEAVES. — Arrangement. The leaves arise from the nodes and 
for some distance from one node, almost to the next above, surround 
the stem in the form of a sheath. The edges of this sheath meet on the 
side opposite the blade, which spreads out from the stem above the 
next node in the same manner, but exactly on the opposite side. The 
leaves are arranged alternately and arise on, and conceal, the grooved 
side of the stem. The leaf sheath is movable on the internode. This 
allows the leaf to swing back and forth upon the stem without break- 
ing loose at its base. The leaves appearing at the lower nodes are 
usually abortive, hence there is not a full leaf for each node on the 
stem. There are, however, usually 12 to 18 leaves upon a stalk, the 
number varying with the variety, the season, and the soil. Corn 
which is thinly planted will have a greater number of leaves than 
that which is closely planted. 

Structure. At the point where the leaf blade spreads away from 
the leaf sheath and changes its vertical course for one more horizontal, 
there appears a hinge. At this point, the fibro-vascular bundles in the 
blade are closer together and a light colored triangular spot appears. 
The blade is especially full near its base for several inches along the 
edge. This waviness is due to the edge growing more rapidly than 
the midrib. This extra amount of surface allows flexibility, both in 
lateral and vertical movements. This ligule is very prominent in 
corn and its need is demonstrated especially well in the western part 
of the corn belt. 



46 CORN 

Just inside and springing from the ligule is a short, thin, yet rigid 
prolongation or fringe which clasps the internode of the stem very 
closely. This is the rainguard, which, contrary to common opinion, 
instead of catching the rainfall and collecting it inside the leaf sheath, 
transfers it to the opposite side of the stalk and allows it to drip on 
the rainguard and ligule below. This rainguard in turn does the same 
thing. The water is carried in a zigzag manner until it reaches the 
ground. The fact that, after a light shower in August, a wet spot is 
noted at the base of each hill of corn can be accounted for because of 
this process. 

The midrib and the veins, which are only larger gatherings of 
fibro-vascular bundles, serve to hold the green surface spread out to 
the sunlight. They are also crrculatory ducts. The epidermis of the 
leaf is not very thick or tough. This is shown by the tendency of 
the point of the blade to split in a heavy, whipping wind. The green, 
cellular structure between the veins of the leaf of corn is, in the plant's 
early growth, very turgid and of a dark color. The curious openings 
on the surfaces of the leaf, known as stoniata, are very active in the 
corn plant. Guarding each opening will be found two crescent-shaped 
cells known as guard cells. The stomata act as passage ways for the 
transpiration of moisture and for the inlet and outlet of carbon dioxide 
and oxygen. They cannot properly be spoken of simply as breathing 
pores. 

FIGURING THE LEAF SURFACE OF A CORN STALK. As 

the corn plant requires over 500 tons of water for the formation of one 
ton of dry matter, the leaf surface must necessarily be large to accom- 
modate this enormous transpiration. In figuring the surface area of 
a leaf, measure the width three inches from the ligule, also at a point 
six inches from the tip of the leaf. Add these two widths, divide by 
two to get the average. Multiply this average width by the length of 
the leaf from the ligule to that point, six inches from the tip. To the 
area of this rectangle, add the area of the isosceles triangle at the tip 
of the leaf, which is six inches in altitude and as wide as the leaf is 
at that point. The sura of the two areas gives the leaf surface on one 
side of a single leaf. Multiply this sum by two and the entire surface 
of leaf will be ascertained. For approximate calculations, the surface 
area of one leaf multiplied by the number of leaves on the stem will 
give the entire leaf surface of the stalk. 

An Example. Leaf 36 inches in total length, 

4 inches wide at lower measurement (3 
inches from ligule), 

3 inches wide at upper measurement (6 
inches from tip of blade), 

y/2 inches average width. 
Three and one-half inches multiplied by 30 inches (36 6 inches) 
equals 105 square inches, area of rectangle. 



DROUGH r RKSISriNc; CHARACTERS 47 

The isosceles triangle with 3 in. base and 6 in. altitude has an area 
of 9 square inches. 105 sq. in. plus 9 sq. in. equals 114 sq. in., one 
surface. 114 sq. in. multiplied by 2 equals 228 sq. in., the area of both 
sides of the leaf. With 12 leaves on the stem, there would be a total 
of 2.736 square inches, or 19 square feet of leaf surface for that one 
stalk. 

DROUGHT RESISTING CHARACTERS. While necessary for 
the transpiration of so much moisture, the larger surface area of the 
leaves of a corn stalk, must, of course, be equipped with means of 
preventing undue loss. Nature is not extravagant. This is especially 
true in the case of corn. As the water level slowly settles, when the 
summer season advances, the roots of the corn plant begin going 
down, following the strata of moisture. When the spring season has 
been very wet and the summer turns dry suddenly, causing the 
surface soil to bake and evaporation to go on very rapidly, the water 
table often sinks so quickly that the plant, which had before fed near 
the surface, cannot change its root system in time to prevent its being 
stunted from want of moisture. 

When the root system fails in its attempt to keep in contact with 
the water table, the foliage exhibits certain adaptations for reducing 
evaporation. The leaves of a very young corn plant are always 
tubular, partly because of their being wrapped about each other and 
partly because if their surface were open moisture would be lost by 
transpiration faster than it could be supplied by the small root system. 
The leaves are built up of many cells of delicate nature, hence they 
depend upon moisture for the maintenance of rigidity. As excessive 
evaporation from the surface continues and the supply from below 
slackens, the leaves fold in halves on the mid rib. The edges also curl 
in on each other. This "curling" of corn in July is a bad omen to 
corn growers in the drier districts. Through July and August, dur- 
ing the formation of the ear, is the critical period in the life of a corn 
plant. A lack of moisture at this time means curtailment of yield. 

THE FLOWER. The corn plant is monecioiis ; that is, the stam- 
inate and pistillate flowers are borne on the same plant, but at differ- 
ent places. They will be spoken of here as male and female flowers, 
respectively, as they are cominonly known as such, but from a strict 
botanical point of view the terms male and female are incorrect when 
so applied. The time of blossoming depends upon : 

(i) The time of planting. Early corn usually comes out in bloom 
and ripens before the late planted corn. 

(2) Varieties, whether early or late. 



48 



CORN 



(3) Seasonal influences. Often in a growing season of plenty 
rainfall, the early corn will remain green and continue growing late 
in the summer before blossoming. A sudden drouth at the time of 
rapid growth forces the date of blossoming upon the corn. 

(4) Soil conditions. A soil which is lacking in plant food and 
not retentive of moisture, dwarfs the plants and they prematurely p'lt 
out flowers. 

MALE OR STAMINATE FLOWERS.— Tassels. The male or 
staminate flowers are found in the tassel, arranged in the form of a 
panicle, the branches of which 
are shorter neai'er the base. 
There are two single flowers in 
each spikelet. Each single 
flower has its own set of inner 
bracts, and the two together 
are enclosed by thicker, darker 
green, outer bracts. Each flow- 
er has three stamens, mounted 
at first upon short, stock fila- 
ments, but which as the pollen 
matures, lengthen and push the 
pollen sacks or anthers out to 
be caught m the breezes. The 
anthers are two-celled and in- 
stead of opening at the tip end, 
split just above and along one 
side. This allows the pollen 
grain to be wafted to greater 
distances. At the base of each 
set of these filaments, there is 
present a greenish, glandular, 
turgid body, called the lodicnle, 
which swells as maturity ad- 
vances, thus spreading open the 
bracts to allow the stamens to 
be pushed out. Each pollen 
grain is very small, having in 
its center a nucleus, while the 
remainder of the cell is light, 
and serves as a buoy in its 

course through the air. It has been estimated that each anther or 
pollen sac produces about 2,700 pollen grains. A single tassel con- 




Section of branch of tassel showing pollen 
sacs suspended on the elongated fila- 
ments. Note the openings of the cells 
of the pollen siios (anthers). 



DEVELOPMEiNT OF EAR 



49 




tains 7,500 pollen sacs, making a total of 20,250,000 pollen grains per 
plant in the corn field. This excess of pollen is necessary because of 

the loss of so many grains which arc 
lodged about the stalk and which fall to 
the ground. If every grain were to reach 
a silk there would 1)e 20,250 grains for 
each ovary, if each stalk produced but 
one car, or 10,125 in case of two ears, 
counting i,ooo ovaries per ear. 

FEMALE OR PISTILLATE FLOW- 
ERS. The female llowers are borne on a 
hardened spike (cob), which is produced 
on a branch or shank coming from a node 
on the main stem. At first, the leaf sheath 
covers and protects this outgrowth, but 
it soon appears above the sheath and the 
corn is said to be "shooting." In a short 
time, the husks, which are modified leaves, 
open at the tip end and silks appear. The 
outer end of each silk, a portion of the 
stigiiw, is often split, and is covered with 
very shurt hairs whicli. together with a 
sticky or mucilaginous secretion present, 
aid in collecting pollen grains. 

The remainder of the silk to its attach- 
ment is the style, which is slightly angu- 
lar and is tubular. The style is attached 
to the summit of the oviiry (kernel), which is held in two sets of 
bracts and encloses within its walls a single o^'nlc. Tliere is but one 
silk for each ovary and there are 8oo or more ovaries on the spike. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR. Corn is a cross-pollinated 
plant. Nature, in her effort to accomplish this, sends out the tassel 
as many as seven days before the silks appear on the shoot below. This 
character is taken advantage of in mating ears in the breeding block. 
When a pollen grain falls upon the stigma of a silk, the moisture there 
present, and the heat of the summer causes it to germinate. 
The external evidence of germination of a pollen grain is the produc 
tion of a long pollen tube which penetrates the stigmatic surface and 
passes down through the hollow style to the tip of the ovule within 
the kernel. The internal evidence of germination consists in several 
divisions of the pollen grain nucleus. Two of the resultant nuclei pass 
down through the pollen tube, out through its ruptured tip and one 



A spikelet from the tassel cut 
lengthwise to show its two flow- 
ers, the one on the right fully 
open, the other not yet mature. 
Sk, stalklet; C, C, outer bracts; 
D, E, inner bracts of the open 
flower; (J, lodicules, which by 
swelling spread the bracts 
apart: I'", F", filaments cut 
Hcross; V, filament bearing ripe 
anther (RA) shedding pollen 
(P ) ; YA, young anthers, the 
left liand one cut to show tlip 
pollen. Enlarged. (Original.) 



50 



CORN 




EAR IN SILK. 
(Entire Tassel.) 



IKRI II.IZAIION 




Maize. 1. A young ear cut through the 
middle lengthwise. Sk, Sk, the main 
stalk ; Sk', the branch stalk which bears 
the ear ; Sh, shcatli of tlie leaf enfolding 
the whole ear; RG, rain guard; B, blade 
of the same leaf; H, husks; Sg, stigmas 
{'"Silk") protruding beyond the husks. 

II. A single spikelet of the ear, showing 
the bracts (C, C, D, E, D', E') and the 
ovary (O) and the lower part of the 
style v'Sy) of the single pistil. Enlarged. 

III. Upper part of stigma, showing the 
delicate hairs that cover it. Enlarged. 

(Original.) 



unites with the egg cell, which 
has been formed within the 
ovule. This constitutes the act 
of fertilization. But one grain 
is required for the fertilization 
of each ovule. The fertilized 
ovule immediately begins to 
grow and together with the 
surrounding ovary, forms the 
kernel of corn. The silks at 
the butt of the ear are the first 
to appear and the first, as a 
rule, to be pollinated. The mid- 
dle kernels are next. The com- 
plete fertilization of the tip 
kernels of the ear depends 
upon the continuance of good 
weather and the late tasseling 
of other nearby stalks in the 
same field. Warm, balmy 
weather, with a slight breeze, 
is ideal for the transfer of 
corn pollen. Dashing rains at 
this season of tne year wash 
the pollen from the tassel, 
and a moist atmosphere pre- 
vents the grains from floating 
about. 

The developing kernel is fed 
from within the cob by a single 
fibro-vascular bundle which ex- 
tends directly to the stalk. 
This duct, in its course through 
the cob, passes between the 
soft white cellular pith and the 
woody portion and enters a 
passage-way through this 
woody portion to the base of 
the kernels. The Dracts about 
the base of the ovary become 
the colored chafif of the ma- 
tured cob. 



52 



CORN 



Each ear is borne upon a shank which at first holds the shoot 
upright along the side of the stalk, but, which, as a rule, later allows 
the matured ear to droop and even to hang, because of increased 
weight of the ear and lack of rigidity in the shank itself. The shank 




EAR IN NATURAL POSITION ON STALK. 

Note That Its Shank Lies in the Groove. The Outer 

Husks are Shorter Than the Inner Ones. 



fits in the groove of the internode and appears jointed just as does the 
stalk itself. As many as ten or more internodes are present. At each 
node a husk is produced, those from the lower nodes overlapping 
those above. The number of husks and their coarseness depends 
upon the season, the soil and the variety. The place of appearance of 



DEVELOPMENT OF KF;RNEL 53 

this shank varies. In rank growing corn it will be higher than on 
plants produced on poor soil. In a wet season, when the fibro-vascular 
bundles are constantly supplying plant food from below, "shoots," 
so-called, may appear at seven or more nodes, beginning quite near 
the ground. The position of the shoot which finally matures is an 
inherited character and it has been shown that it may be largely con- 
trolled by selection. As a rule, it develops at a point between four 
and six feet from the base of the stalk. Some varieties produce two 
or more ears on each stalk. In favorable years, two ears per stalk are 
not uncommon in many fields. 

THE KERNEL, DEVELOPMENT OF. In the sHidy of the 
development of the kernel, the first period of growth includes what 
is commonly referred to as the milk stage. Kernels in the milk are 
very sweet, due to the presence of sugar which has not yet been 
transformed into storage starch. The protein, ash, and oil are depos- 
ited in the *embryo (germ) before the endosperm or the body of the 
kernel is filled out. Later, the cellular structure (endosperm) sur- 
rounding the embryo is packed full of starch. Much of this material has 
been held in readiness in the stalk and is now deposited in the grain. 
A seed such as corn in which the reserve food is stored outside of the 
embryo is said to be endospertnoiis; one in which the food is stored 
entirely within the embryo is said to be exendospennous. The stor- 
age of all this readily available food material takes place during the 
development of the seed. Man has taken advantage of these facts 
and developed in certain grains an increased storage of one or all 
these constituents. The matured grain-fruit (kernel) is called cary- 
opsis. It is the ripened ovule surrounded by the ovary walls. 

Immediately covering the food supply of the seed and enveloping 
the entire caryopsis, is a thin membranous layer called the tegincn 
(seed coat), overlain by a tough coat or testa (ovary wall). The 
integument formed by the union of these two constituents is the bran 
of wheat and the hull of corn. It may be removed after soaking the 
kernel in warm water for about twenty minutes. 

Germination is the resyimption of growth of the young plant which 
lies within the seed. This young plant is the embryo or germ.* It is 
made up, first, of a large shield-shaped portion (scutellum) which 
lies next the endosperm and which does not appear above ground, and 
second, a portion which develops into the roots, stem, and leaves of the 

"This term embryo is sometimes loosely applied to that portion of the embryo which produces 
the roots, stems and leaves. This is incorrect, the terms germ and embryo are strictly 
synonymous. 

(3) 



54 CORN 

corn plant. The portion which is to produce the stem and leaves lies 
toward the crown of the kernel and is called the plumule. The portion 
which is the first root lies toward the tip of the kernel, and is called 
the radicle. 

At the time of germination the radicle becomes the root sprout. It 
appears enveloped for a time in a sheath, the "coleorhiza." This root 
sprout is usually temporary. The permanent roots spring from the 
first node of the stem sometimes before it has pushed its way out from 
under the hull of the kernel. 

The "stem sprout" is the awakened plumule. It is believed by 
some good authorities that the scutellum corresponds to the single 
seed leaf or cotyledon in such plants as the lily. Tlie corn is therefore 
said to be ''monocotyledonous." A representation of the "dicotyle- 
dons" is the bean which has two such seed leaves. The first leaves are 
tightly rolled together, the younger ones being enclosed within the 
older. Just as soon as the stem sprout reaches the light, it turns green 
owing to the formation of chlorophyll. 



COLLATERAL READING. 

Flint Varieties of Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 225. 

Varieties of Corn, by Sturtevant, 
U. S. Department No. 57. 

Pop Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 202. 

A Study of Corn, 

Maine No. 139. 

Sweet Corn, 

Maryland No. 96. 

Corn, Roots of, 

Kansas No. 127 



CHAPTER TV. 



GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH 
OF PLANTS 



GERMINATION 

Germination is the awakening- of the dormant embryo. Its imme- 
diate subsequent continuation is dependent upon available nutrimen\ 
contained in the seed. 

THE CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION ARE 

A. VITALITY. 

B. MOISTURE. 

C. PROPER TEMPERATURE. 

D. OXYGEN. 

Take away any one of these first four factors and life will not 
awaken from its slumber. The successful storage of grains is depend- 
ent upon the elimination of as many of these favorable conditions as 
possible. The exclusion of oxygen is a physical impossibility, while 
the regulation of temperature is limited, but by preventing the access 
of moisture to stored seeds, germination is prevented. 

VITALITY. The vital principle in a live seed is known only by 
its effects. The organic life evidenced by germination is a phenom- 
enon due to the presence of living cells in the embryo of the matured 
seed. 

Kernels which have been subjected to continued freezing or to 
excessively high temperatures have this life extinguished. Embryos 
which are not full of water are not so suddenly or injuriously affected 
by these extremes. The cells of a swollen plumule or radicle are de- 
stroyed when the temperature is lowered below freezing. 

By experimentation, De Candolle was able to germinate seeds of 
a few species after a storage of fifteen years. Other plants require 
immediate favorable environment or the vitality of the seeds is weak- 
ened or lost. Seeds of Mountain Potentilla were known to germinate 
at Meriden, New Hampshire, when 60 years old. 



56 CORN 

"Well matured corn two years old is very slightly weakened if kept 
in cool dry storage. Corn four years old shows very weak germina- 
tion, much of it failing to grow at all."* 

MOISTURE. A dry seed is usually hardy. It withstands the 
extremes of heat and cold. The structure of a matured corn kernel is 
conducive to the absorption of water, the first process in the awaken- 
ing of the embryo. Water has four distinct functions in germination. 

(1) It softens the covering of the seed. It penetrates the minute 
cells of the seed coat, enters the larger cells within, and by swelling 
them causes the entire seed to increase in size and ruptures the 
softened covering. 

Kernels of corn placed in water at a temperature of 70 degrees 
Fahrenheit will absorb 15 per cent of their original weight in 52 
hours. The rapidity of absorption depends upon the maturity of the 
corn and temperature of water. Kernels with a large amount of flinty 
starch and covered with a thick coating of horny gluten, which acts 
as a sealing wax, require considerable time and a higher temperature 
to induce penetration of moisture. Starchy kernels of an open cellular 
structure admit the soil moisture very readily. This accounts for the 
rotting of immature kernels when placed in the ground early in the 
spring, ac which time it is cold and wpt. 

(2) It dissolves the plant food. The parent bequeaths to the 
ripened ovule a store of starch, fat, sugar, and protein before the 
seed is cast off. Of these substances the sugar and allied compounds 
are soluble in water; before the remainder can be utilized they must 
be digested or rendered soluble. This digestion takes place, how- 
ever, only in the presence of water. This fact is well illustrated by 
the rapid germination of immature kernels of corn. The sugar which 
would later have been changed to starch and stored in the kernel, is 
readily soluble in the water which first enters. Tests have shown 
that corn which was picked early, germinated in a shorter time than 
that gathered in the husking season. However, it must be borne 'n 
mind that there is a smaller reserve of plant food in such a kernel to 
continue the germination. Therefore, the soil must be warm and 
rich in order that the young rootlets may begin immediately to draw 
from outside sources. 

(3) It carries the plant food to the growing embryo. A con- 
tinual supply of available nutriment is demanded by the young plant. 
The presence of water insures its transportation to every growing 
point. The scutellum acts as an absorbing organ for the plant food 

*Classbook of Botany. Wood. 



GERMINATION 57 

Stored in the endosperm. The food so absorbed, together with that 
stored in the scutellum, passes over a sort of bridge to the sprouting 
plumule and radicle. 

(4) It aids in the chemical and biological changes. The two 
classes of food materials present in the largest amounts in the mature 
seeds are the albuminoids and carbohydrates. The albuminoids in 
cereals appear in aleurone grains. Starch represents the larger part 
of the carbohydrates. The aleurone cells are thought to secrete 
diastatic ferments. These ferments or "enzymes" begin immediately 
to corrode the starch cells lying beneath. The epithelium of the scut- 
ellum has similar secretive cells which become active very early. The 
resultant product after the diastatic action on the starch js an invert 
sugar which is readily soluble in water and is quickly absorbed by the 
growing plant. Some soluble cane sugar enters the embryo as food 
also. 

In the spoiling of stored grain the same process occurs. Bacteria, 
yeasts, and moulds, which are universally present, change the sugars 
to alcohol and acids, making the grain sour. In the case of the ger- 
minating plant in the field, the sugar is used before the latter steps 
have time to take place. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE. Many experiments have been made 
with the seeds of cereals and grasses to determine the effect of heat 
upon germination. The highest temperature at which a certain kind 
of seed will germinate is termed the "maximum." The "minimum" 
temperature refers to the lowest point at which the seed will ger- 
minate. The most favorable temperature — the degree of heat which 
produces the most rapid substantial growth — is the "optimum" tem- 
perature. 

The following are the maximum, optimum, and minimum temper- 
atures as given by Sachs for some of our most common farm seeds : 

Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. 

Wheat 41 84 104 

Barley 41 84 104 

Maize 48 93 115 

Professor Gerald McCarthy, of the North Carolina Experiment 
Station, gives: 

Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. 

Oats 55 70 90 

Rye 55 75 Qo 



58 CORN 

The Department of Agriculture in seed investigations has tried to 
imitate nature in the germination of seeds. A temperature of 64 
degrees to 68 degrees F. was maintained, but during six hours out of 
each twenty-four, the temperature was raised to 86 degrees F. *Pam- 
mel gives the minimum degree for the germination of corn as 49.9 
degrees F., the optimum 91.4 degrees F., and the maximum as 134.8 
degrees F. The lowest temperature at which maize will germinate, 
according to Sturtevant, is 43.7 degrees F. for all varieties. Corn 
seems to do much better under a constant, rather than a changing 
temperature, which is not the case with more northern native plants. 

Some heat i= generated in the process of germination, but where 
the seeds are planted in hills by themselves this radiates so rapidly 
as to be unnotioeable. Low temperature at the time of germination 
retards growth. Cold, wet, mucky soil which excludes the warmer 
surface air, produces a weak plant and feeble advancement. Seed 
beds in the best tilth are conducive to increased activity of the roots 
and a higher coloring of the stem sprout, showing greater strength and 
vigor. 

OXYGEN. Oxygen is present in the seed, both in a free and a 
combined state, but this supply is insufficient for germination. Ger- 
mination will not take place in water which has been boiled to drive 
ofif oxygen. The inhalation of this vital element is followed by the 
oxidation of the constituents stored in the seed and a consequent evo- 
lution of energy. With the intaking of oxygen, there is a comparable 
outgoing of carbon dioxide gas. This process, which is slow and 
imperceptible,, except by direct and careful experimentation, is called 
respiration. 

The principle upon which the tilling of the soil lies, is in the assist- 
ance of nature. A soil impenetrable to the air, resists the processes 
which bring about rapid and substantial growth. It is not alone to 
eliminate weeds that the seed bed is prepared so careiuUy^ The more 
delicate operations of vegetation are facilitated. 

The unlieal*^hy appearance of corn on poorly drained soil is usually 
considered to be due to too much water, when it is really the lack of 
oxygen. When corn, which has been planted very deeply, is slow in 
germinating in the spring, especially when continual rains come on, it 
is due largely to a reduction of temperature and an exclusion of 
oxygen. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR GERMINATION. The time required 
for germination depends upon the presence of the conditions just men- 

*Grasses of Iowa. Vol. 1, Page 91. 



PLANT GROU'TH 59 

tioned. In germination box tests in the green house, at a temperature 
of 80 degrees F., corn has sprouted distinctly in four days. 

Early planted corn on ground which has been well prepared, in 
order to admit the surface air, will appear in 10 to 12 days or sooner. 
Listed corn on low ground sometimes requires two weeks or more 
before it can be seen in the furrow. 

THE GROWTH OF PLANTS 

The growth of plants is a natural process. It is a cellular develop- 
ment which usually results in increase of volume and weight. This 
activity is the expression of life. During the early period of existence 
of a plant, this development takes place in all the parts at the same 
time. Later, centers of growth are formed, usually near the tips of 
roots, stalks and branches. In cereals and grasses, growth takes 
place at the base of each internode and also at the tip of the stem. 

THE ESSENTIALS FOR THE GROWTH OF GREEN 
PLANTS ARE: 

1. Constitution. 

2. Water. 

A. The absorption of water 

B. Its uses. 

(i) An essential constituent of the plant. 

(2) Regulates temperature of plant. 

(3) Maintains tirrgi'ciity. 

(4) Aids in the physical changes in plant food. 

(5) Enters into the chemical processes within the 

plant. 

(6) Transports plant food. 

3. Proper temperature. 

4. Light. 

5. Plant Food. 

A. From the air. 

(i) Oxygen. 

(2) Nitrogen. 

(3) Carbon. 

B. From the soil. 

(1) Nitrogen. 

(2) Phosphorus. 

(3) Potassium. 

(4) Calcium. 

(5) Others. 



60 CORN 

CONSTITUTION. This term is often confused with vitality. A 
plant or animal may have vitality, that is, there may be life present, 
but it may lack strength and vigor. Many corn plants that come 
through the ground in the spring never attain any size. 

In-breeding in corn tends, as in live stock, to weaken the constitu- 
tion of the plants. The blades become narrow and of a light green 
color, the root system shallower and the stalk itself more slender. The 
weakness is often inherited, although it may result from improper 
care of the seed. The offspring of an ear of corn or spike of wheat 
may, from germination to maturity, show certain characters of 
strength which stand out distinctly. The breeder takes advantage of 
this fact, especially in the production of plants of economic impor- 
tance. New varieties are evolved in this manner. The importance 
of knowing the ancestry of one of these plants with marked constitu- 
tion cannot be overestimated. The environment has much to do with 
the highest development of virile characters. 

WATER. The presence of water in a plant is necessary for tke 
activity of its cells. The protoplasm, which is the most important 
part of the cell, is a more or less slimy or jelly-like substance contam- 
ing a considerable proportion of water. The peculiar phenomenon 
which is called "life," is associated with this watery substance. The 
amount present is influenced by the kind of plant and the environ- 
ment. Fresh red clover hay contains 70 per cent of water; green tim- 
othy hay, 62 per cent; mangel beet roots, 91 per cent; potatoes, 79 
per cent; corn silage, 79 per cent; corn from the crib, 11 per cent. 

THE ABSORPTION OF WATER. The adequate absorption of 
water goes on only when the following conditions are present: 

(1) A degree of temperature suitable to the nature of the plant. 
The oat plant will absorb moisture from a much colder soil than will 
the corn plant. The millets require an even higher temperature. A 
corn plant is slow to use moisture early in the spring, although 
requiring a great deal for the most rapid growth during the summer 
months. Well water poured into pots of tropical plants in a green- 
house often checks their growth. 

(2) A supply of fresh air. Imperfect respiration occurs in the 
roots of plants which are growing in soil which is so full of moisture 
as to exclude oxygen. Undrained portions of corn fields, where the 
water stands on the surface or very near it, always grow weakly 
stalks. Even in July, when this water is warmed, the plant cannot 
use it because of the exclusion of air. 



ABSORPTION OF WATER 61 

(3) The condition of the water. Plants differ in their demands 
for water. Plants with a very fine, fibrous root system, draw almost 
entirely upon the slight films of moisture surroundinpf each soil par- 
ticle. Plants with few roots require that the moisture be present more 
abundantly. Corn seems to take a place rather between these ex- 
tremes. The root system is not fine enough to absorb moisture from 
a dry soil, and yet the plant will not thrive in a saturated stratum. 

FUNCTION OF WATER. 

In Plant Growth, Water has six distinct functions. 

(1) Water is an essential constituent of the plant. 

The most abundant constituent of growing farm crops is Avater. 
In chemical combination with carbon, it enters into almost every com- 
pound stored or used by the plant. 

(2) Water regulates the temperature of the plant. 

When there is danger of excessive heat injuring the plant, the 
rapid evaporation of water from the leaves reduces the temperature. 
This is proved in the corn field in July. The temperature may rise 
very rapidly to extreme heat, but the moisture which is taken up by 
the roots is continually evaporating from the leaves; this keeps the 
whole plant cool. If the moisture supply be deficient, evaporation is 
diminished and the temperature of the plant rises. 

(3) Water maintains turgidity. 

A cell which has absorbed water until it is exerting considerable 
stretching force upon the cell walls is said to be turgid. The moisture 
necessary to maintain the turgidity of the plant is obtained from the 
soil by the root hairs. These hairs draw upon the capillary and 
"hygroscopic" water within their reach. The root system receives this 
moisture and passes it from cell to cell into the tubes of the central 
cylinder. 

The moisturQ continues its upward course as sap. Just why sap 
rises has never been entirely satisfactorily explained. It is probably 
due to a combination of physical phenomena ; among them root pres- 
sure, capillarity, the "pumping" action of certain cells of the stem and 
the higher concentration of the cell sap where transpiration is rapid. 
The passage of moisture from these tubes to the cells is affected by 
osmosis. This is the diffusion of liquids through a membrane in which 
no openings are visible. 

Vapor is transpired, or evaporated through minute openings on the 
surfaces of the leaves of a plant. These pores or stomata are sur- 
rounded by guard cells which open or close according to the amount 
of water stored in the plant. They help to regulate the degree of 



62 



CORN 



turgidity of the entire plant. When every cell is full of water these 
guard cells dilate the stomata and evaporation is increased. In con- 
trast, if the roots fail to furnish a sufficient supply of moisture, the 
wilting of the leaves relaxes the guard cells and the opening of the 
stomata closes and transpiration is diminished. The curling of corn 
leaves in July indicates that the roots are securing insufficient mois- 
ture. When the atmosphere is clear, dry and hot, and the wind is 
blowing briskly, transpiration is increased even though the stomata 
are practically closed. Coolness and dampness of the air tends to 
reduce the passage of moisture from the stomata. 

*The following was found to be true regarding the amount in tons 
of water per ton of dry matter lost by transpiration through the plant 
and evaporation of the soil : 

Dent corn used 309.8 tons of water per ton of dry matter. 



Flint corn 




239-9 




It (< < 


Red clover 




452.8 




(( <( ( 


Barley 




392.9 




(( (( ( 


Oats 




522.4 




<< .( ( 


Field peas 




4774 




(( (< ( 


Potatoes 




422.7 




(( (( ( 



(4) Aids in the physical change of plant food. 

The nitrates, the form in which all nitrogen enters the plant, are 
soluble in water. This compound is drawn in with the soil moisture 
by the root hairs. Other soil constituents are also soluble in water. 
"The weight of evidence supports the conclusion that water is capable 
of dissolving from the soil all the substances that it contains which 
serve as the food of plants."** A few analists assert that phosphoric 
acid is not soluble in water alone. Yet experiments have proved its 
presence in water solutions of ten days standing. It must be kept in 
mind, however, that only weak solutions of plant food are readily 
absorbed and assimilated. Care should be taken then that manure 
containing a large amount of available and soluble elements is not 
applied heavily to the corn crop. In case of excess, the plant is 
injured. The presence of carbon dioxide in water renders it more 
effective in dissolving the food materials in the soil. 

(5) Water enters into the chemical processes within the plant. 
In all probability, carbonic acid and water are decomposed at the 

same time by the action of the sun's rays through the chlorophyll, in 

*"The Soil," King. Page 155. 

**Johnson's "How Plants Feed," Page 316. 

'*''*WarrJnf ton's "Chemistry of the Farm," Page 6. 



PROPER TEMPERATURE 63 

the leaves of the plant. *'^* "It is probable that formaldehyde is first 
produced according to the following equation. CO2 plus H2O equals 
CH2O plus O2. Cane sugar (C12H22O11) and starch (C6H10O5; 
are among the earliest products. These are converted respectively 
into glucose .(C6H1206) and maltose (C12H22011.Ii20) for the 
nourishment of distant parts of the plant, to which they are conveyed 
by the movement of the saj). In parts where growth is taking place 
and new cells are being formed, the sugar of the sap is converted into 
'cellulose,' the substance which forms the cell walls, and of which the 
skeleton of the plant primarily consists." 

The fatty matter of the plant is thought to come from the carbo- 
hydrates. Albuminoids are probably formed from the carbohydrates 
and the nitrates and then changed to proteids. 

(6) Transports plant food. 

The activity of water in plant growth is incessant and vital. The 
growing regions depend upon this carrier of plant food in physical 
solution for their maintenance and continued development. This is 
a very important function of water in plant life. Water acts as a 
carrier of waste materials. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE. The average temperature of the 
native habitat of a plant is an important factor in determining its 
maximum growth. Yet adaptability to environment has enabled 
many plants to move far away from their original abode. Corn now 
grows north of the Minnesota-Canadian line. South Diikots is yearly 
increasing its production of this cereal. The optimum temperature 
for the development for different plants varies greatly. A cool month 
of May is detrimental to growth of corn, but small gr£.in thrives lux- 
uriantly. A hot, wet July is ideal for corn, but means destruction to 
spring wheat. 

The following table shows the growth of 25 stalks of corn from 
June 21 until August 20, 1907. The measurements were in most 
cases taken every three days. The highest point of the stalk was used 
as the basis. When the corn was small the highest point was in the 
crotch where the upper leaves spread away from the central stem. 



64 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 13 

RATE OF GROWTH OF CORN PLANT 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 



No. Hills 



June 

21st 



3.5 
3.5 
3.7 
2.5 
3.7 
4.0 
3.2 
4.0 
3.7 
4.5 
5.0 
3.0 
3.5 
6.0 
6.5 
5.5 
4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
4.2 
5.5 
5.7 
4.5 
6.2 
6.4 



June 

24th 



5.0 
4.0 
4.5 
3.5 
3.5 
4.2 
4.5 
5.5 
5.0 
6.5 
6.0 
5.5 
5.0 
7.0 
8.5 
8.0 
5.5 
5.5 
5.5 
6.0 
7.0 
6.0 
5.5 
8.3 
8.0 



June 

27th 



7.0 
6.2 
6.0 
4.5 
5.5 
7.0 
7.5 
8.5 
7.0 
8.5 
8.5 
6.7 
7.0 
11.0 
12.0 
9.0 
9.0 
9.3 
9.5 
9.0 
8.0 
8.2 
7.5 
10.5 
10.5 



July 

1st 



July 
4th 



9.2 

9.0 

9.2 

8.5 

9.0 

9.5 

9.5 

10.7 

10.0 

10.5 

11.0 

8.0 

9.5 

13.5 

14.0 

12.5 

11.0 

11.0 

11.5 

11.5 

10.0 

10.5 

10.5 

14.0 

14.5 



13.5 
12.0 
14.0 
11.2 
11.5 
12.5 
12.5 
15.0 
14.5 
16.0 
20.0 
14.5 
17.0 
19.5 
20.5 
18.0 
17.0 
15.0 
10.0 
18.5 
15.5 
15.5 
15.0 
20.5 
19.5 



July 

_8tli 

18.0 
10.0 
18.0 
24.0 
17.0 
16.0 
17.5 
19.0 
18.0 
19.0 
21.5 
19.0 
18.5 
23.0 
26.0 
19.0 
20.0 
20.5 
22.0 
23.0 
22.0 
20.0 
19.0 
25.5 
20.0 



July 
11th 



24.0 
24.0 
24.0 
20.5 
20.0 
21.5 
22.5 
22.5 
21.5 
24.0 
26.0 
22.0 
25.0 
28.5 
34.0 
28.0 
27.0 
25.0 
27.0 
20.0 
26.0 
25.5 
24.5 
34.5 
35.5 



July 

15th 

27.5 
26.0 
29.0 
27.0 
20.5 
27.5 
26.0 
30.0 
28.0 
20.5 
36.0 
27.0 
32.0 
38.0 
45.0 
39.0 
33.0 
28.5 
36.0 
40.0 
31.0 
33.0 
31.0 
43.0 
30.0 



Average 



4.5 



5.7 



10.7 



15.5 



20.3 



24.8 



32.11 



Increase 



1.2| 2.3 



2.6 



4.8 



4.8 



4.5 



7.3| 



No. Hills 



July 
22nd 



July 

24th 



July 
i6th 



July 

30th 



Aug. 
3rd 



Aug. 
6th 



Aug. 
10th 



Aug. 
13th 



Aug 

17th 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 



48.0 
40.0 
48.5 
40.0 
52.0 
48.0 
49.0 
40.5 
46.0 
44.5 
54.0 
50.0 
50.0 
58.0 
62.0 
64.0 
57.5 
47.0 
61.5 
58.0 
51.5 
54.0 
48.0 
54.0 
58.0 



52.0 
49.5 
48.5 
49.0 
57.0 
52.0 
54.0 
55.5 
50.0 
50.0 
48.0 
49.0 
55.0 
62.0 
65.0 
68.0 
58.0 
56.0 
64.0 
60.0 
52.0 
57.0 
51.5 
70.0 
65.0 



64.0 
59.5 
57.5 
60.0 
62.0 
64.0 
64.0 
67.5 
62.5 
60.0 
69.0 
61.0 
60.5 
72.0 
77.0 
78.0 
65.0 
68.0 
72.0 
69.5 
64.5 
68.0 
62.0 
80.0 
79.0 



72.0 
68.0 
70.0 
68.0 
73.5 
75.5 
66.0 
80.0 
72.0 
71.0 
75.0 
77.5 
77.5 
81.0 
82.0 
91.0 
74.0 
80.5 
87.0 
77.5 
71.5 
81.0 
75.5 
95.0 
94.0 



85.0 
75.5 
83.5 
80.5 
85.5 
81.0 
79.0 
84.0 
82.0 
79.0 
89.0 
98.0 
93.0 
94.5 
93.0 
110.0 
89.0 
101.0 
106.0 
96.0 
84.0 
97.0 
88.5 
112.0 
112.0 



95.0 

76.5 

92.0 

90.0 

90.0 

95.0 

90.0 

105.0 

92.0 

80.0 

102.0 

106.5 

102.0 

104.5 

105.0 

110.5 

97.0 

103.0 

110.0 

114.0 

93.5 

107.0 

97.0 

119.5 

110.0 



104.0 
90.0 
101.0 
111.0 
112.5 
109.0 
111.5 
113.5 
115.0 
102.0 
100.0 
109.5 
109.5 
115.0 
113.0 
119.0 
100.0 
103.5 
130.5 
110.5 
117.5 
110.5 
100.5 
127.5 
131.0 



109.0 
100.0 
101.0 
119.5 
116.0 
115.0 
118.5 
128.0 
121.0 
105.5 
110.0 
116.0 
113.5 
119.0 
113.5 
122.0 
100.0 
103.5 
131.0 
123.0 
123.0 
120.0 
114.5 
130.0 
130.5 



115.0 
113.5 
101.5 
125.0 
117.0 
120.0 
129.0 
133.0 
128.0 
111.0 
106.0 
124.0 
113.5 
120.5 
114.5 
120.0 
100.5 
104.0 
130.0 
127.0 
129.0 
122.0 
120.0 
130.5 
131.5 



Average 



52.1 



55.9 



66.7 



77.8 



91.1 



101.1 



112.0 



110.0 



119.7 



Increase 



12.3 



3.8 



10.8 



11.1 



13.31 10.01 10.9 



4.0 



3.1 



RATE OF GROWTH 



65 



TABLE NO. 14 



TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION COINCIDENT WITH THE RATE OF 
GROWTH AS SHOWN IN THE FOREGOING TABLE. 



'lime 



Maximum 



Minimum 



Rainfall 



June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
June 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
July 
Aug. 
Aug. 
Aug. 



1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1307. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 
1907. 



50 
57 
65 
54 
55 
43 
38 
42 
43 
53 
47 
47 
52 
62 
64 
54 
56 
69 
57 
57 
51 
47 
51 
62 
57 
57 
49 
55 
55 
58 
65 
57 
50 
59 
60 
49 
44 
55 
50 
47 
54 
54 
41 
37 



.10 
.5 
.23 
.01 

.01 



.04 

.04 

.05 

Trace 

Trace 

.41 
.04 

1.0 

.28 
Trace 



Trace 
.76 
.31 

.53 
.02 
.46 



1.05 
.37 



66 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 14 — Continued 



Time 



Maximum 



Minimum 



Rainfall 



Aug. 


i^ 


1907 


Aug. 


5, 


1907 


Auk. 


C. 


1907 


Aug. 


7. 


1907 


Aug. 


8, 


1907 


Aug. 


9, 


1907 


Aug. 


10, 


1907 


Aug. 


11. 


1907 


Aug. 


12, 


1907 


Aug. 


13, 


1907 


Aug. 


11, 


1907 


Aug. 


15, 


1907 


Aug. 


ic, 


1907 


Aug. 


17, 


1907 


Aug. 


18. 


1907 


Arg. 


19, 


1907 


Aug. 


20. 


1907 




.3b 

.01 
.03 
.36 
.67 



Trace 



.01 
Trace 



Trace 



A close study of the two tables will reveal several very striking 
points. In the increase of growth there is a gradual rise in the number 
of inches per day as the plants near forty inches in height. That is, 
when the plants are smaller the root system has not developed suf- 
ficiently to secure an abundance of plant food which will push the 
plant along. It will be seen that this rapidity of growth is kept up 
until the tassel begins to appear in August; then a decided slackening 
occurs. 

A relative study of the second table with the first shows more rapid 
growth during the days of the highest temperature. However, the 
greater factor is the amount of precipitation during these warmer 
days. The period from July 15th to 25th inclusive, the amount of 
rainfall was 3.5 inches. With the high temperature plants at that 
age utilized this excessive moisture and rapid increase in height 
ensued. 

LIGHT. In 1779, Ingenhouss discovered that oxygen gas is given 
oflf from foliage and carbon deposited in the structure and tis;"ues of 
plant due to the influence of light upon the absorbed carbon dioxide. 
Partial darkness decreases to a certain extent the assimilation of 
carbon dioxide, besides eliminating the green chlorophyll entirely. 
Absolute darkness even causes the plant to lose in weight and deter- 
iorate in structure. The yellow corn plant growing in a shaded place 
or under a clod is a practical example of a lack of sunlight. This is 
often seen also in the listed furrow. Corn which is drilled thickly for 
fodder purposes, shows long, slender internodes, and very often has 
short narrow leaves. The cells of the plant are elongated and require 
a large amount of moisture to maintain their turgidity. In cold, 
cloudy seasons, crops are always late in maturing. 



PLANT FOOD 67 

PLANT FOOD FROM THE AIR. The term plant food is com 
monly used to designate all of the crude materials which are taken 
into the plant, and which are utilized by it. Strictly speaking, the 
term "plant food" is not analogous to the same term used in connec- 
tion with animals. Plant foods are rather the raw materials used in 
the manufacture of food. These materials are built into carbo- 
hydrates, fat, and proteids, and in this form are used as food by the 
plant. However, as we are here concerned with the source rather 
than with the finished product, the term plant food will be used in its 
more commonly accepted sense — that is, as meaning the crude mater- 
ials. 

Disregarding the other constituents, which are present only in 
very limited amounts, the atmosphere contains in one hundred parts:* 

By Weight. By Volume. 

Oxygen 23.17 20.95 

Nitrogen 76.83 79-05 

(1) Oxygen. 

Free oxygen is utilized by plants in exactly the same way as in the 
body of an animal. Foods are required for the purpose of building' 
up new tissues and to furnish energy by their decomposition for the 
growth and movement of a plant and its parts. Oxygen is necessary 
for the latter process, the evolution of energy from the food material 
being a process of oxidation. Carbon dioxide is given off as a result 
and may again be utilized in photosynthesis, which is discussed below. 
The liberation of energy from the food or tissue substance is known 
as respiration. 

(2) Nitrogen. 

P'ree nitrogen as such cannot be assimilated by any green plant. 
Small quantities of ammonia and nitric acid are washed down by rains 
into the soil and are taken up by the roots. Certain bacteria, how- 
ever, some living free in the soil and others in nodules of legumes fix 
the free nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert it into a form whi-jh 
can be utilized directly or indirectly by the plant. 

(3) Carbon. 

Just what is the source of the large amount of carbon used by the 
plants was at one time a subject of extensive investigation. Experi- 
ments show that plants flourish and increase in carbon content when 
their roots feed in a nutrient solution containing no carbon. Y\\\i> 
carbon must then, in such cases, be drawn from the air. But carbon. 

*Aii' alpo contains between .03 and .05 per rent of carbon dioxide. 



68 



CORN 



as a free element, well illustrated by pure charcoal, does not exist in 
the atmosphere. The compound carbon dioxide CO2, however, is 
present to the extent of 3 parts in 10,000 parts of air. Experiments 
have further proved that the carbon dioxide gas is absorbed directly 
by the foliage in solar light. The stomata aid in this absorption, ll 
has also been found that plants die in an atmosphere free from carbon 
dioxide. The carbon after entering the cells of the plant undergoes a 
chemical change by combining with water, as just previously de- 
scribed. This conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbo- 




riELD WHICH HAS BEEN DKOWNED OUT EARLY IN THE SPBING. 

Notice the corn is ia patches. The water logged soil prevented the permeation 

of air. 

hydrates is known as "photosynthesis." The resulting solution of 
soluble carbohydrates accumulate rapidly in the tissues of the plant 
and oxygen is given ofif. 

The corn plant, which is so dark green in color and bears a large 
foliage area, is a gross feeder upon carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 

PLANT FOOD FROM THE SOIL. Not all plants require the 
soil as a medium of growth, but those which do, call upon the soil 
for organic and inorganic substances. The principal elements neces- 
sary for plant growth required from the soil are : 



PLANT FOOD 69 

(1) Nitrogen. Nitrogen is made available by the decay of 
organic matter in the soil. The ammoniacal form is changed by micro- 
scopic organisms present in the soil, into nitrous acid; other organ 
isms in turn change this to nitric acid, which when in union with the 
mineral bases forms the nitrates which are the directly available 
forms of nitrogen. As the nitrogenous organic compounds, such as 
dung, urine, and green manure, as well as ammonium salts, are 
finally changed to nitrates, it is evident that the corn plant growing 
on a field which has been treated with manures of this character 
draws its nitrogen supply from the nitrates of calcium, magnesium, 
potassium and sodium, formed by the union of their decomposition 
products with the bases in the soil. Nitrogen gathering bacteria living 
in symbiotic relation with certain plants, namely, the legumes, draw 
upon the abundant supply of nitrogen in the air, transforming it into 
nitric acid, thus making it available for the plant. The element nitro- 
gen enters largely into the formation of the grain. Sixteen per cent 
of the elementary composition of protein is nitrogen. Experiments 
have shown that corn grown on soils rich in nitrogen are higher in 
protein content. 

(2) Phosphorus. Phosphorus constitutes a large proportion of 
the ash of seeds. The amount of phosphorus (calculated as phos- 
phoric acid) in the ash of the wheat kernel is 45 to 50 per cent, while 
in the straw it is only 5 per cent.* 

Phosphorus is absorbed in the form of phosphates of calcium and 
potassium. It enters into the formation of the proteins and is also 
present in the inorganic compounds. 

In live stock farming phosphorus is more largely sold from the 
farm than any other of the principal soil constituents necessary for 
plant growth. Being used in the formation of bone and muscle the 
per cent of phosphorus in a feed is of significance in feeding young 
animals. In many sections of the corn belt it has already been found 
profitable to add phosphorus to the soil in the form of some commer- 
cial fertilizer. 

(3) Potassium. Potassium, usually spoken of as potash, K20, the 
oxidized form, requires less serious consideration from t.he standpoint 
of its ultimate depletion in the soil than either nitrogen or phos- 
phorus. In the first place, there is already in all soils, except some 
peaty-swamp soils, a large supply. Furthermore, the fact that it is 
present in the straw rather than the grain of plants, guarantees, under 
more modern methods of farming, its return to the soil each year. 

♦"Agricultural Botany," Perclvr.l. 



70 



CORN 



Potassium is taken in largely as a nitrate, chloride, carbonate, sul- 
phate and phosphate. In the assimilation of carbon dioxide the pro- 
cess is facilitated by the presence of potassium. Any plant containing 
a large percentage of carbohydrates usually shows a considerable 
amount of potassium in the ash. The fact that wheat straw loses its 
stiffness upon a soil which is so rich in nitrogen as to force the plant 
along without sufficient potash, proves this. The glazed surface and 
woody wall of the- corn stalk are due to the strengthening power of 
potash. 

(4) Calcium. Calcium, usually known as CaO, or lime, is neces- 
sary to correct the acidity of soils which have been farmed contmu- 
ously, and whose humus content has been almost exhausted. Al- 
though of less importance in the actual development of plants, the 
amount of lime in the ash of barley, oat, and wheat straw is generally 
about seven per cent.* 

(5) Other Plant Foods. Sulphur enters into the composition of 
the protein. Magnesia is found in the ash of seeds, especially in small 
grains. Iron is an essential element of chlorophyll. Plants grown in 
nutrient solutions, free from iron, have no green color. Although sili- 
con, sodium, and chlorine are present in the ash of plants, some author- 
ities claim that they are unessential to the growth of plants. 

The following table gives the amount of the three chief elements 
of plant food found in the principal farm crops by analyses. 

TABLE NO. IS 

SHOWING AMOUNT OF PLANT FOOD IN PRINCIPAL FARM CROPS. 



Corn, grain I 100 bushels 



Nitrogen 



Phosphorus 



Potassium 



Corn, stover 
Entire crop . 
Oats, grain 
Oat straw . . 
Entire crop . , 
Wheat, grain 
Wheat straw 
Entire crop , 
Timothy hay- 
Clover hay . 
Cow pea hay 
Alffilfa hay . 



tons 




2 tons 

3 tons 
3 Ions 
8 tons 



The table showing the amount of different elements taken from the 
soil by the principal crops is taken from circular No. 68 of the Ilhnois 
Experiment Station. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Effect of Fungicides upon Germination, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 41. 
Water Requirements of Corn. 
Utah Bulletin No. 86. 

*"Agricultural Botany," Percival. 




Sixty-five bushels of choice Blackhawk lUia's YiUow Dent seed coin selected trom tlie l-'irst Prize Acre 

in Blackhfiwk County. Iowa. 1914. (Howaid-bowmaa Farm) wliieh yielded 109 bushels; showing the re 

suit of eleven years of careful selection of this corn in that county. 



CHAPTER v.. 

CLIMATE AND SOIL IN ITS RELATION 
TO CORN 



CORN AND CLIMATE 

The factors which are absolutely essential to the production of a 
corn crop may be included under the following heads: 

1. Seed used. 

2. Cultivation (both before and after planting). 

3. Climate (including temperature, sunshine, precipitation). 

4. Topographical features (including nature and condition of 

soil). 

The final yield and character of the crop are determined by these 
factors. If, in any particular case, one of these is found to be un- 
favorable to the needs of the crop, that one factor may determine the 
character of the crop produced. It is usually impossible to ascertain 
definitely just how much influence on the final outcome has been 
exerted by any particular factor. However, much of both interest 
and profit may be learned by a study of that factor, even though it 
may be largely or wholly beyond human control, as is the case with 
temperature or precipitation. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON DISTRIBUTION. Corn is 
grown under more widely varying conditions than almost any other 
cereal. It is raised in every state and territory except Ala<^ka, and in 
both Mexico and Canada. Nevertheless, as is shown in another chap- 
ter, the great bulk of the production is centered in the seven principal 
states of the corn belt — Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, 
Indiana and Ohio. The reason for the largely centralized production 
of a crop showing such wide adaptability, is found in the fact that on 
the area mentioned is fovnid the most favorable combination of soil 
and climate. Other large areas may possess equally favorable soil 
conditions, but the climate is not so well suited to corn raising. Where 
the soil and temperature are all that could be asked, the rainfall is 



CORN AND CLIMATE 73 

usually found to be either insuffcient or not properly distributed over 
the long growing season. *Such is found to be the case when the 70 
to 80 degree July isotherm of the northern latitude is traced around 
the world. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON CHARACTER OF GROWTH. 

Corn displays a wonderful variability in its habits of growth. It 
adjusts itself readily, though somewhat slowly, to changes in its 
environment. This adaptability of the plant has resulted in a very 
marked correlation between the manner of growth and the climatic 
conditions under which it has been grown for a term of years. This 
correlation is seen in 

1. The time of maturity and hence length of growing season. 

2. Size and nature of the stalks. 

3. Yield and character of the grain. 

The length of the growing season for corn varies from 90 to 160 
days, and in different parts of the United States are found varieties 
which are adapted to this wide range. According to Hunt, the rate of 
shortening of the season as we go north of a given latitude is, in 
general, about one day for each ten miles. The reverse is true as we 
go south. Diflference of altitude is said to retard plant growth and to 
delay the awakening season between one-half and one day for each 
hundred feet of ascent and vice versa. 

The length of the growing season is in general the most important 
factor in determining the size of the stalk produced. The long sea- 
son of the south induces the growth of tall, massive stalks with large 
yields of both fodder and grain, while th-e shorter northern season in- 
duces a small, stunted stalk with a moderate yield of grain. The 
larger stalks are coarser and more woody in structure, while the 
smaller ones are much less so, and produce a better quality of fodder. 
Accompanying these differences in the stalk are corresponding differ- 
ences in the grain. The southern corn has large ears with long, deep 
kernels, possessing a deep, pinched dent and a structure that is in- 
clined to be starchy. On the other hand as we go north the opposite 
of these characters is seen. The dent grows shallower and smoother 
and the kernels shorter and more horny and flinty, until they merge 
into the characteristic Flint corn of the north. The differences seen 
in these respects between sections no further separated than the north- 
ern and southern parts of Iowa and Illinois are very marked, while 
beyond the borders of these states the diiferences are still more no- 

*Uuni's "Cereals in America," Page 203. 



74 CORN 

ticeable. The dependence of yield upon climate is seen when the av- 
erage production per acre for the state of Iowa for a term of years is 
considered. Under similar conditions, aside from climate, the yield 
for Iowa has varied from 14.8 bushels to 45.8 bushels per acre. During 
two successive seasons, yields of 14.8 bushels and 38 bushels per acre, 
respectively, were produced. That all the differences mentioned are 
due largely to climate is indicated by the fact that they occur over a 
wide range of soil and correspond closely to difiference in climate. 

That other factors, such as crossing, natural selection or "survival 
of the fittest," and conscious and unconscious selection by man, are 
also partly responsible, is very probable. 

CLIMATE AND VARIETIES.** Whatever caused the original 
form of varieties, it is evident that a slight change in climate will 
afifect corn seriously; but after a few years it adjusts itself to the new 
conditions and becomes fully acclimated. It was by su^h a process 
that the cultivation of corn has been gradually extended nortiiward 
in the United States. Today this cereal is grown successtully, where 
twenty-five years ago its cultivation was impossible. Although the 
corn plant is so sensitive to climatic changes, it adjusts itself to them 
so readily that new varieties can be successfully introduced if they 
are first grown on a small scale until fully acclimated. The sensitive- 
ness of the plants, however, suggests that caution should be used 
about purchasing for field production in a large way, seed from a dis- 
tant locality, particularly if that locality be in a different latitude. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON COMPOSITION. Unlike the 
wheat plant, the chemical composition of which is largely dependent 
upon climate, corn appears to be but slightly affected by such influ- 
ences. Richardson ^analyzed many samples of corn grown in the va- 
rious parts of the United States, but from seed obtained from a com- 
mon source. The variation in the ash content was found to be small; 
that of oil and crude fiber was proportionately the same as was found 
in wheat, fairly constant, but the content of albuminoids (protein) 
did not vary nearly so widely as did those of wheat. These results 
are supported by analyses of foreign corns by Koenig. "Our conclu- 
sion must be then, that corn can supply itself with nitrogen, under 
varied circumstances, but that it rarely is able to assimilate more than 
a certain amount. The bushels may vary, and the size of the grain, 
but the quantity of albuminoids is practically unchanged."* From 
these experiments Wiley concludes that "It is evident that Indian 
corn, growing as it does over the whole of the United States, is one 



*Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901. 
**The relation of climate to variety and type of corn grown is taken up fully in Chapter VI. 



PRECIPirAlIUN 



75 



of those crops which tends more than any other to maintain a uni- 
form composition and to vary less under en^'ironment. It is this cliar- 
actenstic of Indian corn which enables it to be erown with success 
under such widely varying conditions."* This,** of course is not tak- 
ing selection into consideration. 

RELATION OF CORN GROWING TO PRECIPITATION. In 
the production of a corn crop water is of the utmost importance. The 
yield obtained is more often decided or limited by this facior than 
by any other. Corn does not require so much water for each pound 
of dry matter produced as do many other crops, but the large total 
weight of this crop more than overbalances such a consideration. 
Whereas, the average amount of water transpired by plants is usually 
given as 500 pounds for each pound of dry matter, the amount for corn 
is 300 pounds. 

The following table is inserted here as a basis for the di^'cussions 
which are taken up. It shows the figures from which charts Nos. 8, 9, 
10, 11 and 12 were made. 

TABLE NO. 16 

Showing Average Yield of Corn, Mean Annual Temperature and Rainfall of 

Iowa for 25 Years, 1890-1914 inclusive. 

CORN YIELD— AVFRACiE IN IOWA FOR 25 YEARS 



Yea^ 

1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 



Average 

.28- bu. 
.38 

29 
.35.7 

14.8 

38 

39 

29 

34.5 

3C.3 

43.3 

2G.2 

34.0 bu. 



Year 



Average 



1903 
1904 
1905 
190G 

1907 

1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 



31 

3G 

37.2 

41 

29 5 

35.9 

34.6 

39.8 

32.9 

45.8 

34.9 

38.0 



Average 34.5 bu. 



MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL OF IOWA FOR 25 YEARS 



Year 



1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 



Temp. 



48.0 
47.3 
46.6 
45.7 
49.7 
47.2 
48.6 
47.8 
47.7 
47.3 
49.3 
49.0 
47.7 



Rainfall 



31.30 
32.90 
36.58 
27.59 
21.94 
26.77 
37.23 
26.98 
31.34 
28.68 
34.05 
24.41 
43.82 



Year 



1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 



Temp. 



47.2 
46.3 
47.2 
48.4 
48.0 
49.5 
47.4 
48.6 
49.5 
46.4 
49.7 
49.1 



JRa nfal^ 

35.39 
28.51 
36.56 
31.60 
31.61 
35.26 
40.01 
19.87 
31.37 
28.89 
29.95 
31.93 



'Yearbook Dept. .Agriculture, 1901. 
**See Page 130, Results at Wisconsin Experiment Station wberc fertilizer was used. 



76 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 16— (Continued) 
MONTHLY MEAN PRECIPITATION IN IOWA FOR 25 YEARS 



Year 


May 


June 


■July 


Aut-ust 


Average 


1890 


3.50in. 
3.18 


7.7Cin. 
5.39 


1.9Sin. 
4.22 


3.4llU. 

4.24 


4. IS In. 


1891 


4.26 


L892 


8.77 


5.19 


5.29 


2.24 


6.37 


1893 


3.45 
1.87 
3.19 
6.68 
1.92 
4.67 
6.23 
3.31 
2.35 


3.90 
2.67 
4.32 
3.10 
3.81 
4.72 
5.04 
3.98 
3.71 


3.33 
0.63 

3.40 
6.90 
3.26 
2.98 
3.07 
6.15 
2.34 


2.32 
1.58 
4.43 
3.52 
1.86 
3.44 
3.68 
4.65 
1.29 


3.25 


1894 


1 69 


1895 


3.S4 


1896 


5.05 


1897 


2.71 


1898 


3.95 


1899 


4.50 


1900 


4.52 


1901 


2.42 


1902 


5.39 
8.55 
3.78 


7.1G 
2.86 
3.45 


8.67 
4.83 
4.41 


6.58 
6.64 
3.43 


6.'J5 


1903 


5.72 


1904 


G.77 


1905 


5.95 


5.53 


2.91 


4.05 


4.61 


1906 


3.54 


3.92 


3.04 


3.95 


3.61 


1907 


3.48 


5.35 


7.27 


4.33 


511 


19C8 


8.34 


5.66 


3.66 


4.77 


5.59 


1509 


4.34 


6.41 


4.77 


1.81 


4.33 


1910 


3.41 


1.99 


1.86 


3.88 


2.78 


1911 


3.76 
3.33 
6.24 
3.31 


1.82 
2.74 
3.31 

5.57 


2.27 
3.71 
1.82 
2.27 


3.32 
3.78 
2.68 
2.19 


2.79 


1912 


3.39 


1913 


3.51 


1914 


3.33 




4.50 


4.38 


3.80 


3.51 


4.05 



MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE IN IOWA FOR 25 YEARS 



Year 



May 



June 



July 



August 



Average 



1890 


57.7 
58.3 
54.0 
56.6 
61.1 
61.7 
65.5 
59.6 
59.6 
60.2 
63.2 
G0.7 
63.8 
61.6 
59.6 
58.3 
60.8 
53.5 
59.4 
57.9 
55.4 
64.9 
62.7 
59.4 
62.2 
59.9 


12.7 
69.1 
69.2 
71.2 
73.2 
69.7 
G9.1 
69.1 
71 4 
70.7 
69.7 
72.3 
65.2 
64.6 
67.1 
68.9 
67.9 
65.G 
67.1 
69.1 
69.5 
75.7 
66.2 
.71.5 
72.2 
69.5 


75.G 
68.6 
73.0 
75.0 
76.4 
72.1 
73.6 
75.6 
73.4 
73.1 
73.4 
82.4 
73.1 
72.9 
70.6 
70.6 
70.9 
73.7 
73.0 
72.3 
74.5 
75.5 
74.6 
76.1 
76.6 
73.9 


66.4 
69.1 
71.4 
69.4 
74.6 
71.9 
71.7 
68.9 
71.2 
74.4 
77.4 
73.8 
69.1 
69.1 
69.1 
74.3 
74.1 
71.1 
70.0 
76.1 
71.9 
71.7 
71.0 
76.6 

12>:j 

71.9 


68. G 


1891 


66.3 


1892 


CG.9 


1893 

1894 


68.1 
71.3 


1895 


68.9 


1896 


70.0 


1897 

1898 

1899 


68.3 
68.9 
69.6 


1900 


70.9 


1901 


72.2 


1902 


67.8 


1903 


G7.1 


1904 


66.6 


1905 


68.0 


1906 


68.4 


1907 


66.0 


1908 


67.4 


1909 


68.8 


1910 •. 


67.8 


1911 


71.9 


1912 


68.6 


1913 


70.9 


1914 


71.2 


Average 


68.6 







Of equal or greater importance than the total amount of rainfall 
is its distribution during the growing season. Corn makes its most 



PRECIPITATION 77 

rapid growth during the months of July and August, and, therefore, 
it is during these months, while the corn is tasseling and forming ears, 
that the greatest amount of rain is needed for the best growth of this 
crop. The so-called small grains require their moisture earlier in the 
season, since they make their growth and mature early. April is the 
critical month for winter wheat, from the standpoint of precipitation, 
and May and June are the important ones for oats. For these reasons, 
the small grains are to quite an extent dependent upon the early 
precipitation for their moisture, while it is the later rains which bene- 
fit corn. While heavy May and June rains are needed for oats, they 
may be detrimental to corn, in that they favor development of a shal- 
low root system which is ill-fitted to withstand the frequent dry 
weather of July and August. A very wet May or June means also 
a poorer stand, vigorous growth of weeds, ineffective and insufficient 
cultivation, and a puddling of the soils, which means baked and cloddy 
ground when a dry spell arrives. The plants also tend to grow on too 
large a scale, producing too great a proportion of stalks to roots. The 
resulting condition of both plant and soil are such as to unfit them for 
a dry summer. 

The accompanying charts show concretely the importance of pre- 
cipitation and illustrate the foregoing discussion. They are based 
upon the average yields of corn in Iowa for eighteen years 
and the mean monthly temperatures and precipitations for the same 
period. In each case, the heavy lines represent the normal yield, tem- 
perature, and rainfall. Chart No. 12 shows the relation of yield to 
the total rainfall of the growing season, for the months of May to 
August inclusive. With a few explainable exceptions, the yield and 
rainfall agree very closely. The years 1892, 1902 and 1903, show high 
precipitation, with yields not correspondingly large, but the other 
charts show that in each of these seasons there was an excessively 
wet May or June, or both, accompanied by a low average temperature. 
In 1893, the yield was higher than the rainfall for these months would 
account for, but it follows a very wet season and the April (1893^ had 
an unusually large amount of rain, which is not included in the total 
which is plotted. In 1906, the largest average yield is shown with a 
rainfall slightly below normal. The May, June and July conditions 
of that year were nearly normal, while the critical month of August 
was exceptionally favorable. The low yield of 1907 is accounted for 
on the grounrls of the very cold May and June, early frosts in the fall 
and erratic distribution ot the rainfall. 

Charts 8 and 9 do not show close correlations between yields and 
precipitations for May and June. The explanations for these dibciep- 
ancies have already been given. 



78 



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TEMPERATURE 83 

The correlations of yield? and rainfall for Jtily and An.cfust, espe- 
cially the latter, shown by charts 10 and 11, illustrate the importance 
of rainfall to corn during these months. The August precipitation fol- 
lows the yield, even more closely than docs the total seasonal rainfall. 

Rainfall affecrs not only yield, but habit of growth as well. A wet 
season favors larger and continued growth, while a dry one imkice? 
smaller growth and earlier ripening. Therefoie, in wet seasons, the 
corn is liable to be injured by early autumn froi;ts. 

The peculiar adaptability of the climate of the corn belt states to 
the growing of this cereal is accounted for by the fact that the greater 
part of the rainfall occurs during the crop season. For example, in 
Iowa 71 per cent of the total precipitation, or 22.48 inches, occurs dur- 
ing the six crop months, while 51 per cent, or i6.2g inches, falls during 
the four most critical crop months of May to August, inclusive.* Dur- 
ing the three spring months 28 per cent of the precipitation occurs; in 
the summer and autumn respectively, the percentages are 39 and 23. 
while but 10 per cent falls during the winter.** 

RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO CORN GROWING 

• Corn is a semi-tropical plant and requires for its maximum growth 
moderately large rainfall, well distril:>uted through the growing sea- 
son, together with a large amount of sunshine and a relatively high 
temperature. An examination of the accompanying charts will show 
that in Iowa the combination of large precipitation and high average 
temperatures is rarely found. In fact, these two seem to be opposed 
to each other. Heavy rainfall is accompanied by a low average tem- 
perature. Low rainfall and high temperatures (e. g. 1894 and 1901) 
are found together. For these reasons no very direct relationship be- 
tween yields and average temperatures can be traced. 

Another feature of temperature, that of frosts, is not shown by the 
charts. Late spring and early autumn frosts decrease the yields, but 
such influences cannot be plotted. Unseasonable frosts shorten the 
growing season, the importance of which is obvious. 



*RpDorf I iwa Weather and Crop Service (1902) 

**The effect of moisture and its relation to the corn crop will be further discussed In Chap. VIII. 



84 CORN 

CORN AND SOIL FERTILITY 

SOIL ADAPTED TO CORN. With a favorable climate, the 
factor which influences the yield of corn most is the nature and 
condition of the soil. Corn will thrive on a wide variety of soils, but 
it will p^row best and give the most profitable returns on a dark lOam 
that is well supplied with humus or organic matter. The soil should 
be well drained at the surface, although a water table three or four 
feet below is an advantage rather than otherwise. Such a soil is most 
often found on the bottom lands of the glaciated areas of the corn 
belt. Profitable crops may also be produced upon light soils, if they 
are so handled, by manuring and the growing of leguminous crops, 
so that the supply of humus is maintained. 

Although corn is a vigorous grower, a gross feeder, and can utilize 
such materials as coarse barnyard manures better than most other 
cereals, it does not do well on poor land. Some crops are not depend- 
ent for grain production on the total growth of the plant; but the 
nature of corn is such that it will not produce a heavy yield of grain 
unless the soil is rich enough to permit a considerable growth of 
stalks and the largest yield is not secured unless the stalks attain a 
strong vigorous development. For this reason it is best to grow other 
crop on very poor land until its fertility can be built up. 

INFLUENCES OF SOIL ON COMPOSITION OF CORN. The 

composition of the corn plant and particularly the protein content, 
varies with the conditions under which it is grown. Among the fac- 
tors which determine the composition, the fertility of the soil is a 
most important one. This subject has been studied extensively at the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station.* It was there found that corn grown 
in sand to which no fertilizer had been applied, contained but 8.44 
per cent protein, as compared with 9.94 per cent when a small amount 
L)f sodium nitrate was added to the soil, and 11.5 per cent when that 
amount of fertilizer was doubled. 

The results of the experiments point toward the following con- 
clusions : 

(i) "That the percentage of protein in the plant is dependent 
directly upon the amount of nitrate in the soil ; 

(2) That corn on different fields may make very nearly equal 
growth, while differing materially in percentage of protein produced; 

(3) That beyond a certain point, the percentage of protein is not 
increased by excess of nitrates; and 

* Wisconsin Station Reports 1902, pp. 192 — 209; 1904, pp. 193 — 9. 



SOIL 85 

(4) That in the presence of a sufificient amount of nitrates in the 
soil, variations in the growth of the plant are caused by the amounts of 
the salts in the soil other than nitrates." 

At the Minnesota Station, *Snyder found that the composition of 
corn fodder varies with the conditions under which it is produced. 
Fodder grown on manured land contained 8.85 per cent protein, while 
that from unmanured ground contained but 6.32 per cent. The im- 
portance of this is readily seen when it is remembered that "high 
grade corn fodder is more vakiable than the best grade of timothy 
hay, while corn fodder grown on poor unmanured soil that has re- 
ceived poor cultivation, where the crop has not been properly cared 
for and the leaves are lost, has about the same feeding value as straw." 











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HOG BARN, WITH LITTER CARRIER DEPOSITING MANURE IN RACK, TO KEEP THE STOCK 
FROM TRAMPLING IT IN THE MUD ABOUT THE LOT. 



CONTINUOUS GROWING OF CORN. A glance at the history 
of those agricultural regions of America which have proved to be par- 
ticularly well adapted to some one "money" crop, reveals a reckless 
disregard for the original fertility of the soil. In each of these dis<-ricts, 
the one crop has been raised on the same ground continuously, until 
much of the soil has been greatly depleted. The impoverished cotton 
and tobacco lands of the south, the wheat lands of the northwest, which 
now produce but a fraction of the yields that they once did. and the 
run-down farms so numerous throughout the corn belt, all stand as a 
reproach to the wasteful cropping systems followed. 

The continuous growing of a single crop upon the same land year 
after year causes 

*t5th Bi. Report Kansas Station, Boord of Agriculture, Page 895. 
(4) 



86 



CORN 



(i) A great deterioration in the physical condition of the soil. 

(2) A waste of the soil fertility, especially of the humus and 
nitrogen. 

(3) An increase of the weed enemies and the insect pests that 
attack the crop, and as a result of all these, decreased crop yields, 

HUMUS. The productive capacity of most of the land of the 
corn belt is largely measured by its physical condition and its content 
of humus and nitrogen. Humus as defined by Hopkins includes only 
that part of the organic matter that has passed the most active stage 
of decomposition and has completely lost the physical structure 
of the materials from which it is made. Deterioration in the physical 
condition of a soil is accompanied by soil washing and lessening of its 
water-holding capacity. 




MANURE SPREADER IN OPERATION ON PASTURE LAND WHICH IS TO BE PLANTED TO 

CORN THE NEXT YEAR. 

These results are brought about by the rapid exhaustion of 
the humus. The frequent cultivation which is given the corn crop 
promotes the aeration of the soil and thus permits the organic matter 
to be rapidly oxidized. The humus serves as a binding material to 
hold the soil particles together. In fine grained soils, such as clays, 
it gives a more loamy texture, such as is seen in soils which are 
in good condition. Such soils will not bake or become cloddy, or run 
together when wet, and are not so subject to washing as soil contain- 



HUMUS 87 

ing less organic matter. Humus also helps to fill the otherwise too 
large air space in loose, open, sandy soils, thus preventing too rapid 
leaching and holding the moisture nearer the surface, where it can be 
utilised by plants. Humus acts as a sponge in the soil. It is one of 
the best known absorbents of water, and hence its presence adds 
greatly to the water-holding capacity of soils. In Minnesota, *Snyder 
found that a native soil contained 3.97 per cent of humus and had a 
water-holding capacity of 62 per cent, while a soil cultivated for 23 
years, but otherwise similar, contained 2.59 per cent of humus and 
had a capacity for water of only 54 per cent. 

The very rapid depletion of the fertility of the soil by continuous 
cultivation of one crop is also largely due to the resulting loss of 
humus. Humus influences fertility in two ways: 

(i) By supplying nitrogen directly, and 

(2) By helping to make the mineral elements soluble. 

It is from the humus that all crops except legumes must obtain 
their supply of nitrogen. While nitrogen is no more essential to the 
growth of corn than some other soil elements, it is the one which is 
required in the largest amount, and is the one most easily lost from 
the soil. Throughout the corn belt, it is much more often the supply 
of nitrogen than that of any other element which limits the crop pro- 
duction. In Minnesota it has been found that "The loss of nitrogen 
from four grain farms amounted to from three to five times as much 
as that removed by the crops. This loss was due to the rapid decay 
of the humus and the liberation of the nitrogen which forms an essen- 
tial part of the humus." At this same Station, *when corn was grown 
continuously on the same plot for 12 years, the loss of nitrogen 
amounted to 1,400 pounds, or 18 per cent of the total amount orig- 
inally present, and the waste of humus corresponded to that of nitro- 
gen. The yield of corn was much less than that grown on similar 
plots, but in a rotation. By its direct action in rendering the minerals 
of the soil soluble and available to plants, humus performs a most 
important function and greatly influences the crop yields obtainable. 
**A large part of the mineral supplies of a fertile soil are found chem- 
ically combined with humus, and it is chiefly in this form that they 
are used by the crops. Thus, the loss of humus by continuous crop- 
ping places another check on crop yields, for no matter how large the 
natural supply of minerals in a given soil, they are useless to growing 
crops until rendered soluble. 

''Minnesota Bulletin, No. 89. 
**Miune8ota Balletin. No. 94. 



88 



CORN 



NECESSITY OF ROTATIONS. If the great wastes and rapid 
depletion of the soil which follow continuous cropping are to be 
avoided, it is necessary to adopt some systematic rotation of crops, 
including some legume. The objects of a rotation are: 

(i) To maintain or improve the physical condition of the soil. 

(2) To conserve or improve the soil fertility. 

(3) To guard against insect pests and noxious weeds. 

(4) To distribute the labor throughout the season. 

(5) To supply more economically the necessary protein to bal- 
ance the corn ration. 

To accomplish the first two objects it is necessary to check the 
unnecessary waste of humus and to replace by plowing under crop 




MOWING A CROP OF ALFALFA, ONE OF THE LEGUMES WHICH NOT ONLY DEPOSITS NI- 
TROGEN IN THE SOIL, BUT OPENS UP THE SUBSOIL TO CONSIDERABLE DEPTH. 

residues that which is gradually lost. This cannot be done by simply 
alternating corn and oats, or by any rotation which does not include 
a leguminous crop. 

Different crops occupy different strata of the soil, and make differ- 
ent demands upon the elements of plant food. The deep-rooted le- 
gumes utilize plant food which lies beyond the reach of the shallow- 
rooted cereals, after the former are removed from the soil a large 
amount of hitherto unavailable plant food is brought within the reach 



CROP ROTATION 89 

of the latter in the form of decaying roots. When it is remembered 
that roots of clover, for instance, represent nearly one-half of the 
weight of the crop, the importance of this source of humus is apparent. 
The principal benefits of rotations are derived from the legumes 
included. Without a legume, a rotation is hardly worthy of the name. 
The members of the legume family of crops, alfalfa, the clovers, soy 
beans, cowpeas, vetch, etc., possess the power of utilizing the nitro- 
gen of the air through the medium of bacteria which grow and form 
nodules upon the roots. The decaying roots help to replenish the sup- 
ply of nitrogen and humus. By use of legumes in the rotation, 
the nitrogen and humus supplies of the soil can be very cheaply and 
profitably maintained or increased. Leguminous catch crops should 
be frequently grown and if the soil is especially deficient in humus or 
nitrogen these crops should be plowed under. If the land is subject 
to washing or blowing, the catch crops should be left on the ground 
during the winter. 

*At the Indiana Experiment Station for 24 years, corn and wheat 
were grown in rotation with each other in comparison with the same 
crops rotated with oats, roots, grass and clover. No manure or fer- 
tilizer was used. In 1909 after 20 years of cropping with the legume 
rotation, the yield per acre was 61.1 bushels as compared with an 
average yield of 25.4 bushels with the corn and wheat alone. 

At the Illinois Experiment Station continuous corn growing has 
been compared with rotations of corn and oats ; and corn, oats and 
clover with the following results. 

TABLE NO. 17 

YIELDS FROM FIELD AT URBANA, TYPICAL CORN BELT PRAIRIE SOIL** 

r- V ~ <- c ♦ 15-Year 29-Ycar 
Crop Years Crop System Experiments Experiments 

1905-6-7 1 Corn every year | 35 Bushels | 27 Bushels 

1903-5-7 1 Corn and oats ] 62 " ] 4b 

19U1-4-7 1 Corn, oats and clover | 66 " | 58 

The lesson of these experiments is that I2 years of cropping, where 
corn follows corn every year, reduces the yield from more than yo 
bushels to 35 bushels per acre, after which the decrease is much less rapid, 
amounting to only 8 bushels reduction dtiring the next 16 years. Un- 
doubtedly the rapid reduction during the first 12 years of continuous corn 
growing is due in large part to the destruction of the more active decaying 
organic matter, resulting ultimately in insufficient liberation of plant 
food within the feeding range of the corn roots. In addition to this, 
the development of corn insects in soil on which their favorite crop 
is grown every year, is sometimes an important factor in reducing the 
yield. • i^ 

* Indiana Bulletin. Nos. 55 and 64. 
♦♦Illinois Bulletin No. 125 (May 1908.) 



90 CORN 

*"Where corn is followed by oats in a two-year rotation, the de- 
struction of the humus is less rapid and the multiplying of corn insects 
is discouraged by the change to oats every other year. During the 
first II years the yield decreased from more than 70 bushels to 62 
bushels, and during the next 16 years a further reduction of 16 bush- 
eis has occurred." 

It is to be noticed that in computing the average yield for the corn- 
oats-clover rotation, the yield for the very dry year of 1901 was con- 
sidered, and yet this method proved the most profitable. 

At this same Station, the sowing of legume catch crops between 
the rows of corn in the "corn-oats-clover" rotation at the time of the 
last cultivation, raised the yield from 66 to 69 bushels. This was done 
in the so-called "Grain Farming" experiment.* 

Considering the last six crops in an experiment which has been 
conducted in Illinois for twenty-nine years, and comparing three 
cropping systems, continuous corn ; corn and oats ; and corn, oats and 
clover, the value of a rotation including a legume is well marked. The 
total value of six continuous corn crops was $58.08. The total value of 
the last six crops in the corn and oats rotation (three crops of corn 
and three crops of oats) was $79.01, and the total value of the last six 
crops of the corn, oats, clover rotation (two crops corn, two crops 
oats, two crops clover) was $92.09. 

Rotation compared with continuous corn shows a difference in 
favor of the rotation of approximately $34.00 per acre for the last six 
crops. 

The average value of each of the six corn crops under continuous 
cropping with corn was $9.68 as compared with an average value of 
$27.16 for the two corn crops included in the last six years of the crop 
rotation plots, or an average value of $15.35 for all crops from the 
rotation plots. 

Corn alone is not a balanced ration. With an abundance of carbo- 
hydrates and fat-producing compounds additional protein is needed 
in feeding for the most economic gains. This can be produced on the 
farm in the form of leguminous crops, more cheaply than it can be 
purchased in the commercial concentrates, hence, crop rotation. 

MANURES. In the maintenance of the fertility of corn belt land, 
farm manures form a very important supplement to crop rotation. 
Manures serve the following purposes in the soil : 

(1) Increase plant food content of soil. 

(2) Aid in making plant food already in soil more readily 
available. 

(3) Improve physical condition of soil. 

^Illinois Bulletin No. 125 



MANURES 91 

(4) Add humus to the soil and increase its moisture holding 
capacity, also allowing freer circulation of air through soil. 

(5) Increase bacterial content of soil. 

*"It is prol)ably fair to assume that as an average, 80 per cent of the 
plant food contained in a ration passes on into the manure, and if the 
manure is economically handled, a large portion of this plant food can 
be gotten back into the soil, though as a matter of fact, it is pretty 
difficult to avoid considerable loss, no matter how well the manure is 
handled. A little carelessness may easily result in the loss of more 
than half its value, since two-thirds of the nitrogen and four-fifths of 
the potash in a ration are voided in the urine, and unless the liquid 
manure is saved by absorbent bedding and a tight floor, the loss of 
these elements is particularly heavy. The possible losses through 
heating and leaching are equally serious and must be guarded against 
with the utmost care. 

"The question is often asked what manure is worth, but it is evi- 
dent from the foregoing statements that no definite value can be as- 
signed. It is variable and depends upon the ration from which the 
manure is made, the age and kind of animals, and the care given it, 
and in general is closely proportional to the care. One ton of manure 
of average composition contains plant food which it would cost $2.25 
to replace in the form of the cheapest fertilizing materials, and that 
valuation is perhaps as fair as any." 

The importance of manures as a source of humus is well shown by 
an experiment at the Minnesota Station, where two plots, originally 
similar, were cropped in the same manner except that one was ma- 
nured and the other was not. At the end of 35 years the first contained 
3.32 per cent of humus and a water-holding capacity of 48 per cent, 
while the second contained 1.8 per cent humus and could hold but 39 
per cent of moisture. 

At the Minnesota Station** a four and a five-year rotation, which 
included corn, oats, clover, wheat, and barley, were compared with 
the continuous growing of each of the cereals mentioned. Manure 
was applied to the corn in the rotations, but the continuous cropping 
plots received none. The experiment was continued for twelve years. 
Excessive losses of humus and nitrogen, together with decreasing crop 
yields, were found on each of the continuous cropping plots, while on 
the manured rotation plots the yields and humus and nitrogen sup- 
plies were maintained and in one case slightly increased. The corn 
m the rotation yielded 20 bushels per acre more than that grown on 
the plot which grew corn exclusively and continuously. 

'Indiana Circular No. 25, Revised Edition 
**Minnesota Bulletin No. 89 



92 CORN 

In connection with the Illinois experiments just referred to, a 
system of "live stock farming" is being studied, in which manure was 
applied to the plots each year in proportion to the crop yields the 
previous year. For the years 1905, 1906 arid 1907, manure was ap 
plied to plots similar to those used in the "grain farming" experi- 
ment, with the result of raising the average yield to 81 bushels per 
acre, as compared with 69 bushels without the manure and 35 bushels 
for continuous corn. 

Results equally favorable for barnyard manure have been obtained 
by the Iowa Station on the Missouri Loess soils of that state.* 

Another test was conducted in Oklahoma** showing the effect of 
manure on the corn crop with a three-year rotation including corn, 
oats, and wheat followed by cow peas. To one set of plots manure 
was added at the rate of 13.4 tons per acre in February, 1900, while 
another set was left untreated. The average yield from the three 
crops of corn 1900, 1903 and 1906 where manure was added was 36.18 
bushels of corn per acre and 2.28 tons of stover. From the unmanured 
plots, the yield of corn was only 26.33 bushels and of stover 1.73 tons. 

TABLE NO. 18 

SHOWING THE EFFECT OF MANURE ON YIELD, AND WATER REQUIRE- 
MENTS OF CORN ON DIFFERENT TYPES. 

(Nebraska Experiment Station.)*** 



Character of Soil 


Dry weight per plant 
(grams) 


Water requirements 
per gram of dry 
weight (grams) 




Unmanured | Manured 


Unmanured | Manured 


Infertile (15 bu.) 

Intermediate (30 bu.)- 
Quite fertile (50 bu.)_. 


___112.75 375.81 
___184.39 413.63 
___270.09 472.55 


549.50 350.30 
478.90 341.30 
391.80 346.60 



To the infertile soil, capable of producing 15 bushels of corn per 
acre, the addition of manure reduced the water requirements of the 
plant 36.3 per cent, and multiplied the crop yield. In the case of the 
more fertile soil, capable of producing from 30 to 50 bushels of corn 
per acre, the benefit was less noticeable, but by no means negligible. 

FERTILIZERS. It is probable that at the present time it would 
not prove profitable to use commercial fertilizers for the production 
of corn on the soil of the corn belt west of Illinois. There may be a 
few restricted areas, such as peaty swamp soils which would require 
potassium, and a few acid soils which should be limed, to which this 
rule does not apply. However, the investigations of several of the 

*Iowa Bulletin No. 96. 
♦^Oklahoma Bulletin No. 87 
***Nebraska Bulletin, Vol. XIV, Article VI. 



ROTATION 93 

Experiment Stations* of this region would seem to support such 
a statement. But that does not mean that these soils are inexhaus- 
tible or that the methods of cropping now commonly in vogue can be 
safely continued indefinitely. By these same methods much of the 
land of the eastern states has been reduced to a condition where ex- 
pensive fertilizers must be used. Even in Illinois, Dr. Hopkins has 
proved that large areas of soil require the application of phosphorus. 
Chemical analyses of some Iowa soils show that their supply of 
that element is by no means inexhaustible. Already, on many soils, 
m practically every community of the corn belt, the effects of an 
msufficient humus and nitrogen supply are seen in lessened crop 
yields. If many of the present methods of handling such soils are 
not soon radically revised, the day of the commercial fertilizer cannot 
be long postponed. 

It is much easier and vastly more economical to maintain the pro- 
ductivity of a fertile soil than to build up an exhausted one. By the 
adoption of a proper rotation including leguminous crops and supple- 
mented by barnyard manures, the time when it will be necessary to 
use commercial fertilizers can be indefinitely postponed on the greater 
part of the corn belt land west of Illinois. The work of the Minne- 
sota Station has shown that by such means the expensive nitrogen 
and the humus supplies can be maintained and even increased. 

A ROTATION FOR THE CORN BELT. Throughout the 
greater part of this region the most profitable cereal crop that can be 
grown on fertile soil is corn. The problem of a rotation, then, is how 
to secure the largest area for that crop consistent with the maintenance 
or improvement of the fertility of the soil. 

"What other crops should be rotated with corn is a problem which 
every farmer must largely work out for himself according to his par- 
ticular conditions, remembering that to get the best results a rational 
rotation must be practiced; that is, the corn crop must be alternated 
with some other suitable crops. What these other crops should be 
and how many different ones should be included in the rotation will 
depend upon a number of factors, among which are the kind of farm- 
ing carried on, the kind of soil and its degree of fertility, the kinds of 
crops which the local conditions will best produce and the extent to 
which they may be profitably used in the system of farming followed. 
One cardinal principle, however, must never be forgotten, and that is 



*MinneBota Bulletin No. 89. 
Minnesota Bulletin No. 94. 
Iowa Bulletin No. 96. 
Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 
Indiana Bulletin No, 88. 



94 



CORN 



that some kind of a legume, usually clover, should have a prominent 
place in the rotation. 

"Broadly speaking, the three-course rotation of corn, wheat or oats, 
and clover will usually be found most suitable on the better class of 
soils, using cow peas m the place of clover, when the latter fails, 
putting manure on the corn and, in some states, commercial fertilizer 
on the wheat. In order to provide the necessary manure and profitably 
use the legume, every corn grower should be a feeder of live stock. 
On the less fertile soils, or those otherwise not so well adapted to 
corn, a longer rotation will be advisable, as for instance, corn, small 
grain, clover and grass, using legume cover crops and liberal applica- 
tions of manure and fertilizer. 

"Another rotation and one which is well adapted to keeping up or 
improving the fertility of the soil and seems well worth trying wher- 
ever soy beans or cow peas will do well, is a four-course one consisting 
of corn, soy beans or cow peas, small grain and clover. In this case 
both corn and small grain may follow legumes which are admirably 
adapted to precede them. There is abundant evidence which goes to 
show that whatever rotation is adopted, the corn should always follow 
a legume, as there is nothing else that will so well or so cheaply fit 
the soil to produce corn."* 



1908 


- CODM 


1908 - 


CORN 


1 90 9 


CORN 


1 303 


OATS 


1910- 


OATS 


13 10 


- CLOUER 


13 11- 


CLOVER 


ISM 


-CORN 


1908 


OATS 


1 308 


C LOVER 


1909 


CLOVER 


I30S 


CORN 


19 10 
19 11 


COR W 






9 1 


-CORN 
-OATS 


CORN 


YARDS 


191 1 






eUl LO 1 NGS 










r Tc 







OJ^ 



ROAD 



The diagram here given shows in a very simple way the outline 
and position of a sugge.sted crop rotation. The name of each crop 



*.Indiana Circular Np, 25 Revised Edition. 



COLLATERAL READING 95 

appears opposite the year in which it is grown on that field. The 
purpose of this explanation is to point out more clearly the steps to 
be followed in a system of rotation. 

A four-year rotation as indicated would demand a liberal feeding 
of the crops and careful application of the manure. Timothy is 
usually sown with clover and the field generally left for two years. ' 
Some farmers eliminate oats as much as possible by drilling wheat in 
the standing corn or after the corn is cut for fodder. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Iowa Climate and Crops, 

Iowa Year Book of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 121-157. 

Relation of Precipitation to Yield of Corn, 

J. Warren Smith, Year Book U. S. Department of Agri 
culture, 1903. 
The Experiment Stations and Corn Culture, 

J. I. Schulte in Am. Rep. 1904, Office Experiment Station, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
Influence of Environment on the Chemical Composition of 
Plants, 

Wiley, Year Book IT. S. Department, 1901, pp. 299-318. 

Indian Corn, 

Bulletin No. 147, Kansas Experiment Station. 

Effect of Manures upon Composition of Corn, 

Connecticut Experiment Station Report 1895, page 125, 
1896, page 315. 

Practices in Crop Rotation, 

Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902, pp. 

519-532. 
Thirty Years of Crop Rotation, 

Illinois Station Bulletin No. 125. 
Soil Areas of Iowa, 

Iowa Station Bulletin No. 82. 
Maintenance of Soil Fertility, 

Iowa Station Bulletin No. 96. 
Studies of Rotations, Humus, Etc., 

Minnesota Station Bulletins Nos. 89-94. 
Various Articles in Fifteenth Biennial Report of Kansas State 

Board of Agriculture, 1905-6, pp. 1-242. 
Cereals of America, 

Hunt, Chapter XII. 



96 CORN 

Reports of Iowa Weather and Crop Service, 
Iowa Year Books of Agriculture. 

Effect of Certain Methods of Soil Treatment Upon the Corn 
Crop, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 54. 

Climatic Studies with Wheat, Corn and Oats, 
North Dakota Bulletin No. 47. 

Corn, Meteorology, Soil Temperature, 
Alabama Bulletin No. 10. 

Co-operative Soil Tests of Corn, 
Alabama Bulletin No. 59. 

Comparative Yield of Corn from Seed Grown in Different 
Latitudes, 

Arkansas Bulletin No. 59. 

Adaptation of Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 244. 

Continuous Corn Culture, 

Rhode Island Bulletin No. 113. 

Corn and Wheat, Fertilizer Tests with 
Minnesota Bulletin No. 94. 

Corn, Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 
Kentucky Bulletin No. 55. 

Experiments with Corn in Wisconsin on Sandy Soil, 
Wisconsin Bulletin No. 147. 

Corn, Results of Fertilizer Experiments with 
Wisconsin Bulletin No. 147. 

Study in the Water Requirements of Corn. 

Nebraska Bulletin Vol. XXIV Article VI. 

Oklahoma Bulletin No. 87. 

Indiana Circular No. 25, Revised Edition. 



CHAPTER V]. 

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED 
CORN FOR PLANTING 

The soil of the corn belt has a high productive power due very 
largely, if not entirely, to its virgin fertility. The system of crop 
rotation heretofore practiced, including the application of manure, has 
not in general added to the original potential supply of plant food. 
The season is usually sufficiently long to mature the crop. More im- 
proved methods of culture are adopted each year. Growers are recog- 
nizing that weeds in corn are not conducive to high yields. The 
ground is kept in better physical condition and abundant moisture is 
conserved. Yet the average yield per acre for the heaviest corn- 
producing States, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana and Nebraska was 
respectively 34.9, 34.8, 28.1, 37.1 and 25.3 bushels for the past ten 
years, 1905 to 1914 inclusive. 

Assume that all the corn in these States was planted with a 3 foot 
6 inch planter, which would make 3,556 hills or 10,668 stalks to the 
acre, providing three kernels grew in each hill. A yield of 38 bushels 
means one 12-ounce ear in each hill. Therefore, the corn growers of 
these States either have but one-third of a stand, or else two stalks 
in each hill are barren. Upon these two points (poor stand and its 
causes and the elimination of the unproductive stalk), the discussion 
of the selection and care of seed corn will be based. 

BUYING FOREIGN SEED. By all means, do not omit picking 
seed corn this fall with the idea that in the spring you will purchase 
entirely new seed and start in the business right. Seed grown in a 
different section of the corn belt, on dissimilar soil, is not sure the 
first year or two under new environment. There is no corn so adpated 
to a given locality as corn which has been successfully grown in that 
locality for a period of years. 

The results of eight years of trial at County Experiment Stations 
located on the county farms in different parts of the State 
of Iowa are very sriking on the point of buying foreign 
seed. There were 80 experiments in all. The corn from the "deal- 
ers" (large seed companies who catalog their sales) was secured hy 
purchasing from them small quantities of seed through some farmer 
in the vicinity of each county farm. The term "outside breeders" 
refers to corn growers who make a specialty of good seed corn. This 
was bought in small quantities. The quality was the same as that 



98 



CORN 



which was being sold to farmer customers. The corn from the "farm- 
ers" was secured directly from the planter box or sack in the field the 
day that the farmer was planting. 

TABLE NO. 19 
*HOME GROWN VS. IMPORTED SEED. (Summary of eight years test in Iowa) 

Farmers 5072 samples 

Outside breeders 603 samples 

Dealers 543 samples 

Average yield of all Farmer's samples 56 bu. per acre 

Average yield of Outside Breeders' seed 53 bu. per acre 

Average yield of Dealers' seed 42 bu. per acre 

One-tenth best Farmer's (507 samples) 67 bu. per acre 

One-tenth poorest farmer's (507 samples) 42 bu. per acre 

The home grown seed did the best in every way, even taking an 
average of all home grown seed, good and bad alike, and comparing 
the results with the imported seed. Taking the best one-tenth of the 
home grown seed, however, the average yield was 67 bushels per acre 
as compared with 53 bushels per acre from the seed secured from 
outside breeders and 42 bushels per acre from seed secured from seed 
corn dealers. 

At the Nebraska Station six leading varieties of corn were com- 
pared for two and three years, the seed in one case being native grown 
and in the other from Iowa or Illinois. 

Table showing yield of corn from acclimated seed and from seed 
from other regions, at the Nebraska Experiment Station. 

TABLE NO. 20 
**ACCLIMATED SEED VS. IMPORTED SEED. (Nebraska Experiment Station) 



Name and place of origin 


1903 
Bush. 


1904 
Bush. 


1905 
Bush. 


Average 
Bush. 


Diff. 
Bush. 


Silver Mine (Neb.) 

Illinois 


7Z.7 
68.7 

68.1 
62.1 


70.0 
65.1 
95.2 
76.6 
84.8 
72.8 
76.2 
68.9 
67.9 
76.9 
83.8 
82.8 


76.1 
63.4 
69.8 
72.3 

74.5 
67.1 

75.1 
63.5 
64.2 
60.8 


73.0 
64.2 
82.2 
74.4 
77.7 
69.5 
76.2 
68.9 
70.3 
67.5 
7-h.7 
71.8 


8.8 


Leaming (Nebraska) 

Illinois 


8.1 


Snowflake White (Neb.) — 
Iowa 


8.2 


Boone Co. White (Neb.)___ 
Illinois 


7.Z 


Early Yellow Rose (Neb.)_- 
lowa - - - 


2.8 


Reid's Yellow Dent (Neb.)_ 

Illinois 

Average 


1.9 
6.2 



In every case in the above tests the native seed of the same variety 
as the imported seed gave the better yield, the average difference being 
6.2 bushels per acre in favor of home grown seed. 



'County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. 
•Nebraska Bulletin No. 126. • 



HARVESTING 99 

HARVESTING SEED CORN— The Time, it is generally agreed 
that seed corn should be picked before danger of a killing frost. It is 
doubtful if the selection should be delayed later than October 1st, 
even in the central corn belt. *For a period of thirty years the average 
date of the first killing frost in the fall in Iowa is October 8th. 

To set a definite day as "Harvest Day" for the entire corn belt 
is impossible. Its significance lies simply in the suggestion. But 
the farmer who has learned through experience and observation 
in his locality, can forecast frost fairly accurately. The only 
thing then is to pick seed before the cold freezing weather comes on. 
When going into the field early in the fall, before any hard frosts 
have come, it will generally be found that the corn as a whole is im- 
mature; yet on examination an occasional ear here and there will be 
seen with its husks turning brown. These, when pulled back, reveal 
an ear in the dent stage, firm and ready to be picked for seed, while 
right in the same hill another ear having had an equal opportunity is 
still in a very immature state. This is the time to select the medium, 
early, well-matured seed ears, instead of waiting until later (huskmg 
time for example), when it is impossible to distinguish between th« 
early and late maturing corn. This may be done the latter part of 
September. Maturity should never be sacrificed for size of ear. There 
are plenty of good sized ears that mature in the corn belt, but they can 
only be properly found by selecting them early in the field. 

The risk of leaving seed corn in the field after danger of frost is 
shown from the results of tests conducted at the Iowa State College. 
Note the high per cent of moisture in the corn in October. If left in 
the field this corn is bound to be damaged by frost. 

TABLE NO. 21 
SHOWING AMOUNT OF MOISTURE IN CORN AT DIFFERENT DATES 

Time Gathered Per cent of Water 
September 20 54 

September 27 51 

October 6 45 

October 13 43 

November 7 28 

The corn will shrivel to a greater extent when gathered early, if 
picked too immature, and the kernels will have a tendency to be 
starchy. This practice continued from year to year will tend to pro- 
duce an early maturing corn. Good ears may be selected at husking 
time later in the autumn, but they should be stored separately and 
very thoroughly tested. Of course in the southern states the danger of 
freezing is not of such importance, but the proper time to pick the 

*Qeo. M. Chappel, Iowa Crop Serrioe. 



100 



CORN 



seed must be observed to avoid injury from moulding, sprouting and 
insect pests. Seed corn should not be left in the field after it has 
properly matured. 

The Method. In case the farmer has no "Selection Bed" in 
which has been planted the best and earliest maturing ears, it is then 
necessary that seed ears be selected from the general field. The most 
practical method by which this is done is to take a sack and go through 
the field, before the hard frosts have come on and select the choicest, 
best matured ears. As many as three or four rows may be observed 
on the way through. Every well-formed, breedy looking ear of good 
size and well matured, at this time may be considered valuable for 
seed purposes, and from twelve to fourteen ears are sufficient for the 




GATHERING SEED CORN IN THE FIELD 

planting of an acre. From three to five bushels of corn is as much as 
may be expected to be found in a single day. These bushels, how- 
ever, will contain the most valuable seed ears that the field has to 
offer. A small plot of selected corn simplifies this process, as the best 
ears may then be found in a comparatively small area. 

During this process, consideration of the strength and character 
of parent stalk, height of ear and size of shank should be noted. The 
characteristics are quite generally reproduced. Stalk should be of good 
size at base, gradually tapering, not necessarily tall. Strong, vigorous 
stalks of medium height, in general produce best ears. Largest, best 



SELECTION 



101 



formed, and to a large degree, the earliest maturing ears, will be found 
at a medium height. The shank should he of medium size and of suf- 
ficient length that the ear may hang with tip down. It is also well to 
note whether the stalks about it are strong, or are barren and dwarfed. 
If the ears seems to be very ripe, look out, the stalk may be diseased. 
As a general rule, the farmer should gather twice as much seed as will 
be required to plant his fields the year following. 



fs 








■ jT 


■ 


1 


/ 






1 




J 


r 

• 


" 










" »K>1»— 




2 1 

GOOD AND BAD STALKS 
No. 1 is an illustration of a good 
stalk, well balanced, the ear 
about four feet from the 
ground, well set and drooped 
sufficiently to shed the rain. 
No. 2 shows a rather weak 
stalk with long joints and the 
ear set too high and much too 
near the top. 



BAD METHOD OF STORING SEED CORN 
The ears are too close together for good circu- 
lation of air, consequently there is danger of 
moulding and that it will not be sufficiently 
dried out to prevent freezing. It is much 
easier to tie with a string, as shown on page 
104. If the string method of tying is fol- 
lowed, a good circulation of air is afforded 
and the ears dry out properly. What must 
he avoided is freezing of the corn before it 
is dried out. The above is a common 
method, but often results in mouldiness, es- 
pecially if stored in this way during a damp 
or wet fall. 



SHOWING EFFECT OF PLANT SELECTION. 

With this thought in view^, the Ohio Station conducted a test in 
1906 in wdiich ears selected from plants growing in the field under 
normal conditions of stand, and as nearly normal in other environment 
as it was possible to judge, were compared with other ears of the same 
variety and selected from the same field, but selected from the wagon, 
no attention being given to the stand in the latter instance. The ears 
selected from the wagon were superior in size and in general appear- 
ance, as might be expected. 

Eight tenth-acre plots were planted from the two selections, four 



102 



CORN 



plots of the plant selected seed and four of the seed selected in the 
ordinary way. These plots yielded as follows : 

TABLE NO. 22 
PLANT VS. ORDINARY SELECTION* 



Plot No. 



Method of selection 



Yield per acre 
Bushels 



49 


Ordinary 


68.64 


40 


Plant 


76.57 


51 


Plant 


70.56 


52 


Ordinary 


68.53 


55 


Ordinary 


69.07 


56 


Plant 


71.43 


57 


Plant 


71.43 


58 


Ordinary 


70.82 



Average of Plant selection plots 
Average of Ordinary selection plots 

Gain for Plant Selection 



72.49 
69.26 

3.23 bu. 



STORING SEED CORN— The Method. The early pioneers in 
corn culture generally tied two ears together by the supple husks 




Ears tied too closely together uu string fur best results. A common 
error in storing seed corn when single string method is employed. 



•Ohio Circular No. 71 



STORING SEED CORN 



103 



and hung them over a wire or rail. Others stripped all the husks 
off, tied two or more ears together and hung them up. With the 
increased interest in seed corn, many dealers thought that they had 
hit upon an ideal plan when the light wooden racks were built and 
the ears laid in tiers horizontally. But, because of the moisture 
and the subsequent heating, the kernels were either molded or 
sprouted. Seed corn which has just been husked requires just one 
thing. It must have a very free circulation of air at ordinary 
temperatures. That is to say, each ear must have access to a 
complete circulation of air in order that its excess of contained mois- 
ture may evaporate rapidly enough to prevent fungus growths and 
chemical changes in the kernels. 

Different Experiment Stations recommend several devices and 
methods which accomplish the desired results with varying degrees 
of satisfaction. Wire racks with both horizontal and vertical strands, 
thus separating each ear into a sort of pigeonhole, are made by some 
manufacturers and sold on the market. Some farmers drive spikes at 
an angle through a two-by-four and simply slip an ear over each spike. 

The method which 
^^^^ has proved of the 

highest efficiency at 
the Iowa Experiment 
Station and which is 
being rapidly adopt- 
ed by the farmers of 
the state, is suspend- 
ing from the ceiling 
or rafters ten or 
more ears, each 
looped at about the 
middle on a single or 
double strand of 
binding twine. For 
corn which is meant 
for show, suspension 
from both ends of 
the ear is more satis- 
factory because then each ear holds its straight form. The circulation 
of air is unhindered, and the method is very practical. Moreover, the 
damage by mice is slight because the corn cannot be easily reached. 
Especially is this so if the binding twine be tied to a wire which 
may be suspended from rafter to rafter. More recently several types 
of wire hangers have been put on the market employing practically 
the same principle as the above. 



^ ^F jrf^ir#jt^.$=^^vv#:r 






vM-'M^m" 



9 PM^c^Mm^m w ## m^ 



A METHOD OF STORING SEED CORN WHICH ADMITS 
THE FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR ABOUT THE EARS. 



104 



CORN 




LAYING IN THE FIRST EAR 



This method, known as the double string method of tying up seed 
corn, is rapid and efficient. Note that the strings held in the left 
hand are longer than those in the right. Also that the strings in the 
right hand are held wider apart. As the strings pass around the ear 
they are about equally distant from butt and tip. 



STORING SEED CORN 



105 




LAYING IN THE SECOND EAR 



The first ear is held securely between the feet. The right hand and 
strings are passed through between those held in the left, leaving a 
place in which to lay the second ear. Notice that the second ear is 
reversed, butt for tip. Care should be exercised to keep the strings 
equally distant from the tip and butt of each ear. Always hold the 
string tight. 



106 



CORN 




LAYING IN THE LAST EAR 



The left hand strings are still a little longer than those of the right. 
The first ear is still securely held between the feet. The string is 
tight and plenty of air space is present between the ears. The ears a^e 
woven in by the strings. No knots have been tied. The weight of 
the ears bind the strings closely to the ears. 



STORING SEED CORN 



107 




READY FOR HANGING 



The longer string is looped through the shorter. No knot is ne- 
cessary if the corn is to be hung up immediately. If, however, the 
ten ears are to be laid down on the floor again, a second hitch of the 
longer string through the shorter will be necessary to prevent the 
ears from slipping out of their places. In case it is desired to suspend 
twenty ears from one point, the second string is looped through the 
longer string of the first ten, and the process of weaving is continued. 



108 



CORN 




TAKING OUT THE EARS 



The hitch and loop which were made in the string previous to 
hanging, are unloosed. The lower ear of the ten is grasped, thus in- 
verting all the ears. The weaving process is reversed. One by one 
the ears drop from their places by their own weight. 



STORING SEED CORxN 



109 



Seed may be left lianging until spring, hut if the mice are not in 
evidence it is better to take the ears down and store them in racks 
after the fall winds have thoroughly dried out the excess moisture. 

The first four weeks is the critical period of storage. Seed corn 
selected in the field in the fall of 1906 on the following dates, showed 
a very high percentage of moisture. 

TABLE NO. 23 
SHOWING PER CENT OF MOISTURE IN KERNELS AND COB 



Date 



Kernels 



Cob 



September 14 
September 21 
September 28 
October 5 . . . . 
October 12 . . 
October 19 . . . 
October 26 . . . 
November 2 . 



41.78 
37.35 
33.04 
28.52 
25.97 
20.15 
22.09 
17.83 



Per cent 



58.58 Per ceo- 

57.17 

55.86 

52.28 

49.05 

40.99 

37.24 

26.82 



The above table taken from the thesis of E. L. Morris and O. A 
Cohagan (1907), of the Iowa State College, shows the large amount of 
water present in early gathered seed corn. It shows that the cob con- 
tains the greater percent of the 
moisture and that the cob is also 
much slower in losing this water. 
Up to November 2d the cob was 
very heavy and damp, the pith 
cells being quite turgid. 

The Place. Unless the small 
grain has been threshed early in 
the season and has had time to 
cool oflf after the sweating pro- 
cess, do not hang the seed corn 
over the oat bin in the granary. 
Furthermore, the ordinary gran- 
ary has hardly enough direct ven- 
tilation to dry out the newly gath- 
ered corn before colder weather. 
A double corn crib, with a sort 
of garret fixed over the drive, is 
almost an ideal place for the dry- 
ing of early picked corn, as the 
wind has free access to the ears 
and a thorough drying is soon 
effected. 

The attic over the living room 

r. , ^ , ^u u ^ SEED EARS ON WIRE HANGERS 

IS often advocated as the best 

place for seed corn storage. Early in the season, when the ears are 

sappy and require the circulation of air, the ordinary attic has too 




110 CORN 

few windows and the temperature is usually so high that mold or 
germination often results. 

Corn which has been dried thoroughly need not be moved from 
the granary or loft because of cold weather. But to be safe, seed 
so stored is better placed in the attic when the lower temperature of 
winter comes on. On the ordinary farm, the seed corn store room 
or separate building has not come to be a permanent fixture. When 
much seed is sold, such a building is almost necessary. 

THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE 
VITALITY OF CORN 

The purpose of this experiment was to determine just what efTect 
freezing would have upon corn which was air dry and that containing 
different percentages of moisture. 

Ears 1-5 were soaked in water at ordinary temperatures for five 

hours. 

Ears 6-10 6 hours 

Ears 11-15 7 hours 

Ears 16-20 8 hours 

Ears 21-25 5 hours 

Ears 26-30 6 hours 

Ears 31-35 7 hours 

Ears 36-40 8 hours 

Immediately after being taken from the water, the ears numbering 
I to 20 were placed in a refrigerator plant where the temperature 
varied from 12 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit above zero. Here they were 
left for 76 hours. Ears 21-30 were left under ordinary room tempera- 
tures for ^2 hours and were then frozen for 24 hours. Ears 31-40 
were not frozen at all, but vvere left in a room at 70 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

*The kernels were afterward taken from, each ear and analyzed for 
moisture as well as given a germination test. The following table 
shows the average percentage of moisture and the percentage of 
germination before and after the treatment, with the consequent loss 
in vitality. 

* Research by W. P. Schnaidt. 



VITALITY 111 

TABLE NO. 24 
SHOWING EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON VITALITY 



Number of ear 


Per cent c 
moisture 


1-5 


22 3 


6-10 


23.5 


11-15 


29.8 


16-20 


30.0 


21-30 


31.2 


31-40 


27.3 



Per cent of ' Per cent of 
perfect vitality perfect vitality 
before treating after treating 



Amount of 
loss 



Per cent 
loss of 
vitality 



88.3 
91.7 
68.2 
84.7 
97.4 
89.9 



28.3 
46.6 
26.4 
44.9 
61.6 
82.3 



60.0 
45.1 
41.8 
39.8 
35.8 
07.6 



69.0 
49.2 
61.3 
47.0 
35.7 
08.4 




THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE 
VITALITY OF CORN. 

The numbers above untreated correspond to those below which 
were treated. 



Conclusions : 

1. When very full of moisture, even freezing for a short time 
is detrimental, 

2. Excessive moisture when not attended with low tempera- 



tures, also weakens vitality. 



112 CORN 

Mr. L. C. Burnett, in his thesis for Master's Degree in Agriculture 
at the Iowa State College, found the following results in germination 
tests with seed corn stored in the places herein named. 

Percent Kernels Germinating 

Strong Weak Bad 

1. Seedroom 95.0 3.3 1.7 

2. Garret (kitchen) 92.5 7.5 — 

3. Tool Shed (closed) 91.7 6.6 1.7 

4. Tool Shed (open) 91.7 8.3 — 

5. Hung outdoors 85.4 '8.3 6.3 

6. Dry garret 83.3 16.7 — 

7. Furnace room 79.6 18.5 1.9 

8. Cellar (not dry) 75.0 23.3 1.7 

9. Hay mow 58.3 41.7 — 

10. Shock (outside) 57.3 20.0 22.7 

11. Hanging on stalk 55.0 15.0 30.0 

12. Lying on ground 46.7 25.0 28.3 

13. Shock (center) 43.0 20.0 37.0 

14. Cellar (very wet) 40.0 51.7 8.3 

Early and rapid drying of seed increases its ability to withstand 
freezing. 

THE NEED OF TESTING SEED CORN. Corn which has been 
stored properly through the winter season is often thought to need 
no testing. But the high price of land and the incumbent risk in 
planting untested seed, demands a more definite knowledge of its 
germinating ability. 

The following table shows the results of extensive tests conducted 
by Experiment Station of Iowa State College in 1910. Each ear of 
corn represented in the experiment was given several germination 
tests, using different kinds of seed corn testers, and the table shows the 
average results of all tests made. In each test six kernels were taken 
from each ear. After being graded according to the strength of germ- 
ination, each lot was planted in the field under uniform conditions 
and in different parts of the field. The record of stand was taken in 
the fall, and the product of each plot was carefully weighed and 
recorded. Check plots were planted to verify the records taken. The 
evidence given herein was further corroborated by a similar test con- 
ducted during the following year. 



GERMINATION TEST 



113 



TABLE NO. 25 

SHOWING DECREASE IN PER CENT STAND AND YIELD WITH DECREASE 
OF VITALITY AS MEASURED BY THE GERMINATION TEST* 



Total No. of 
Ear Tests 


Germination 
S W D 


Per cent 

Stand in 

Field 


Yield Bus. 
per Acre 


Per cent 

Decrease in 

Stand 


Decrease in 
Yield Bus. 


769 


6-0-0 


72.3 


75.1 






472 


5 — 0—1 


58.5 


65.4 


13.8 


9.7 


425 


4 — — 2 


52.4 


58.6 


19.9 


16.5 


347 


3 — — 3 


41.5 


50.1 


31.8 


25.0 


340 


2 — — 4 


34.1 


42.1 


38.2 


33.0 


297 


1—0 — 5 


27.7 


39.4 


44.6 


35.7 


259 


— — 6 


26.6 


34.7 


45.7 


40.4 



S=Strong W=Weak D=Dead 

From the seed ears showing all six strong- sprouts, the average 
yield was 75.1 bushels per acre. From the seed ears with one kernel 
out of the six kernels tested, failing to sprout in the test, the yield in 
the field was reduced 9.7 bushels per acre. Seed ears from which two 
of the six kernels tested failed to sprout yielded 16.5 bushels per acre 
less than the strong ears. Where three out of the six kernels failed to 
sprout the average yield from the seed ears shows a decrease of 25 
bushels per acre. With four of the six kernels failing to sprout the 
yield from these seed ears was reduced 33 bushels per acre. From 
seed ears where five of the kernels failed to sprout in the test the 
average yield was reduced 35.7 bushels per acre, and where all six 
kernels failed to grow a decrease in yield of 40.3 bushels per acre was 
found. The yield recorded from ears which failed to germinate when 
tested is explained by the presence of kernels scattered through the 
ears which have escaped injury. However one would not wish to 
plant such ears which so greatly reduce the yield. 

Covering a period of seven years the results of the farmer's var- 
iety tests in Iowa in twenty-eight counties and covering 55 tests show 
the condition of the seed corn being planted each year, and serve 
further to demonstrate the relation of the germination test to the yield 
of corn in the field. In these tests the seed corn used was taken from 
the planter boxes of farmers right in their fields while planting. The 
seed was planted by hand, three kernels per hill, with exactly the 
same preparation of seed bed, uniform soil, and same cultivation. 
Each sample was planted in different parts of the field in order and 
careful records were kept of stand and yield. Furthermore, several 
germination tests were made of each sample and the average test 
recorded. The following table gives a summary of the data : 

*Iowa Bulletin No. 135 



114 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 26 
*SHOWING RELATION OF GERMINATION TEST TO STAND IN THE FIELD 

AND YIELD 



Number of Samples 


Germination 
Percent Strong 


Per cent 

Stand in 

Field (fall) 


Yield per 
Acre (Bus.) 


All 3550 samples tested 


88 
92 

79 


69 

77 
56 


57 


Best one-tenth (358) 


68 


Poorest one-tenth (358) 


43 







The above table shows conclusively that the germination test 
properly conducted is a safe indication of the power of the seed to 
produce in the field. 

Another test including 4000 individual ears tested and planted as 
in the above experiment, serves further to prove the relation between 
the germination, stand in the field and actual yield. 

TABLE NO. 27 
*SHOWING VALUE OF INDIVIDUAL EAR TEST 



Number of Ears 


Germination 
i Strong 


% Stand in 
Field (fall) 


Yield per 
Acre (Bus.) 


All 4000 ears tested _ 


86 
91 
77 


69 

77 
57 


56 


Best one-fourth (1000 ears) 

Poorest one-fourth (1000 ears) 


68 
42 



The above test covers five years, 109 experiments in twenty-seven 
counties. 

The value of the germination test has been already emphasized, 
but further data relating to the relation of stand in the field to actual 
yield is given in the following table : 

TABLE NO. 28 
*SHOWING RELATION OF STAND TO YIELD. (Result of eight years test in Iowa) 



Number of Samples 


Per cent 


Stand 


Yield per Acre (Bushels) 


28 


20 to 


30 


28 


86 


30 to 


40 


34 


184 


40 to 


50 


42 


548 


50 to 


60 


48 


1001 


60 to 


70 


54 


1581 


70 to 


80 


58 


1158 


80 to 


90 


62 


190 


90 to 


100 


64 


Average 


71.7 


56 



It is of special significance to note that in the above tests only 28.2 
per cent of the seed actually planted by the 4776 farmers represented, 
gave a stand of 80 per cent or better. The average stand of all tests 
being only 71.7 per cent. 

While definite data could not be secured from all states, a poor 
stand of corn in the field is given universally as the greatest cause of a 
low average yield, and the germination test has been everywhere 
urged as the only practical means of detecting and eliminating the 
weak and dead unproductive seed ears. 

*County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. 



TIME OF TESTING 115 

Through the influence of the agricultural press, the short courses, 
corn trains, and a general movement in advance in farming methods, 
corn growers are recognizing the importance of seed testing. Yet 
the awakening seems slow. Out of 182 representative farmers 
throughout the state answering inquiries from the Farm Crops De- 
partment, 79 tested every ear of their seed corn, 85 tested in a general 
way. and 18 did not test at all. 

The Time to Test. Some corn growers make a practice of run- 
ning a preliminary test during the month of January. This is done 
in order to find out whether or not all the seed is badly damaged. 
Should such be the case, other seed could be procured and tested be- 
fore planting time. The method has a sound basis and should be 
followed more closely. One of the serious difficulties in the way is 
the liability of freezing during the test. The method is especially 
applicable to seedsmen who should know how much reliable seed 
they have on hand before the advertising season opens. 

The regular and final test should be made during the month of 
March, There is less danger of the young sprouts freezing from ex- 
posure, and by this time the granary or barn has been emptied to 
such an extent that floor space is available. The planting season is 
near at hand and the tested seed has less chance to change in vitality 
from the time of testing until it is in the ground. The work can be 
completed, and the corn shelled, sorted, and sacked ready to plant, 
leaving the seed room tree. 

MAKING THE TEST.— Fitting Up the Testing Box. The num- 
ber of ears to be tested determines to a certain extent the size of the 
testing box. A convenient size for the practical corn grower is a 
box sufficiently large to hold kernels from 200 ears. This will re- 
quire a box 24 by 48 inches. Six inches in depth is not objectionable 
should fencing lumber be the only thing available. This box should 
have a layer of two inches of wet sawdust packed tightly over the 
bottom. It will be found convenient to wet the sawdust in an old 
sack, letting sack and sawdust soak in warm water for 20 or 30 
minutes, that the sawdust may nave equal moisture throughout. 
While the soil is Nature's seedbed, yet young plants in sprouting 
feed entirely upon the plant food stored up within the kernel. 



116 



CORN 




PACKING THE SAWDUST IN THE GERMINATION BOX 
The brick is used because the corners can be filled uniformly. 



MARKING THE -CLOTH 



117 




MARKING OFF AND NUMBERING THE SQUARES. 



Note that the cloth is fastened down to a smooth surface with tacks. Only 
the outside rows need be numbered. 



(5) 



118 CORN 

Take a piece of new white muslin, which should be a little larger 
than the ])ox, and mark off two hundred squares, each 2x2 inches. 
Corn having especially broad kernels may require squares 2x3 inches. 
This may be done with black or blue crayon. The squares may he 
numbered from 1 to 200, beginning in the upper left-hand corner 
and following consecutively from the left to right for each row or 
the outside rows only need be numbered. Tack the cloth in place 
stretching it uniformly tight over the sawdust. 

Take six kernels from each ear, two from opposite sides of the 
tip, two from opposite sides of the middle, and two from opposite sides 
of the butt. See that no two kernels are taken from the same row. 
This will be a good representation of the germinating power of each 
car. It is not well to take the kernels from one side only, for fre- 
quently an ear is found in which the kernels on one side germinate 
strong, while those from the other side fail to grow. 

By placing the blade of a pocket knife between two rows of ker- 
nels, and prying slightly, a kernel will readily come out into the 
hand holding the ear. The six kernels should be laid on the floor 
just opposite the butt of the ear. Continue this process until six 
kernels have been removed from all the ears. Now take the germina- 
tion box and, beginning on the first row, follow right down, placing 
the six kernels from the butt of each ear into a square in the box, the 
number of the square corresponding to the number of the ear. Thus, 
the kernels from ear No. i in square No. i ; kernels from ear No. 2 in 
square No. 2, and so on until the 200 groups of six kernels each are 
all in their respective places. Another piece of plain muslin should 
be cut just the exact size of the box. This covers the corn kernels 
when laid in place. Next a third strip of muslin larger than the box 
by twelve inches should be placed over the second. The remainder 
of the box above should then be filled level with damp sawdust. Fold 
the edges of the upper strip of muslin over on the sawdust and the 
germination box is complete. 

A great many patent frames are being put on the market. Some 
have points of value, others are not so practical. In time, a device 
more easily manipulated than the one described may be manufac- 
tured. As economy is a factor, the best corn tester must be a labor 
saver. 

Laying Out the Ears and Filling the Box. If the seed is hanging 
in the attic or loft or stored in a seed room it should be laid out in 
rows on the floor or improvised tables. During this process, a keen 
eye will detect some ears which from their outward appearance indi- 



KKMOVlNt; KKKN'Kl.S 



119 




REMOVING THE KERNELS WITH A KNIFE. 



The strip in front of tlie ears sliows liow tlie kernels from eacli ear may be 
deposited. 



120 CORN 

cate low vitality; as for example, a moldy cob or dark colored germ, 
giving evidence of having been injured, probably by freezing. Thete 
should be cast aside at once. Ears which show a lack of breeding 
may be discarded immediately, also. Having laid the ears out in 
rows on the floor, where they are held in place by two nails at each 
end of the rows, each tenth ear should be numbered, after which 
the kernels may be taken out. 

It will be found convenient to handle corn which is to be tested in 
trays of ten ears each. A small strip with holes bored in it large 
enough to hold six kernels each, may be set in front of the tray. 
After the kernels from each of the ten ears have been transferred to 
this strip, they can be carried to the germination box and emptied on 
the squares corresponding to their respective numbers. 

For convenience in counting the test afterward, it is best to place 
the kernels in two tiers of three kernels each, and as evenly as pos- 
sible. Always lay the kernels side by side with the germ side up. 
The tips of all the kernels should point toward that end of the box 
having the squares with the highest numbers. Dampen the loose 
piece of muslin and lay it over the kernels, taking care not to displace 
any of them. On top of this place the larger cloth filled with wet 
sawdust. Pack the corners down and press the entire mass firmly 
against the corn. The box is now ready to be set away for six to 
seven days, just as the temperature dictates. A furnace room fur- 
nishes a convenient place for the germinating box. It should be left 
in a suitable place where the temperature will be favorable for germi- 
nation, from 50 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit being very desirable. Do 
not let the temperature fall below freezing. 

The Result of the Test. By the time the stem sprouts have grown 
two inches in length a careful study of the results can be made. Be- 
ginning at one end of the box roll up the cloth containing the sawdust, 
pressing down hard as it is rolled back. If the mass is lifted bodily 
from the box, the kernels are likely to be dislodged. The second 
piece of muslin can then be peeled back slowly, and carefully re- 
moved. Some rootlets may have penetrated it, hence there is a 
liability of displacing the kernels. 

When this has been done, place the box at the head of row No. 
I. Begin with ear No. i. Examine the result of square No. i. There 
should be two separate sprouts appearing — the stem sprout and the 
root sprout, the former protruding from the upper or crown end of 
the kernel, the latter extending from the tip end of the germ. The 
root sprout is smaller in diameter and longer. Tt will often appear one 



PLACINCJ KERNELS IN BOX 



12] 




TRANSFERRING THE KERNELS TO THE TEST BOX. 

This method is rapid and deposits the kernels in tlie right squares according 

to the numbers. Kernels sliould then he arranged in regular order. 



122 



CORN 




FOLDING OVER THE EDGES OF THE UPPER AND LARGER CLOTH. 
Be sure to keep the corners square and the sawdust well packed into them. 



RKAin' TO REM") 'I'KST 



123 




ROLLING BACK THE TOP COVERING OF SAWDUST PREPARATORY TO 

READING THE TEST. 



Note that the single cloth immediately over the kernels is not displaced. 



124 



CORN 



or two days before the stem sprout may be seen. At the time of exam- 
ination there will be several smaller rootlets besides the primary 
sprout. Not infrequently the root sprout will grow wdiile the stem 
sprout, because of weakness or some injury, will fail to appear. The 
opposite is also true, but to a less degree. Both the root and stem 
sprouts should come stocky and vigorous to insure strong vitality. 




EARS LAYING OUT AFTER THE KERNELS HAVE BEEN TRANSFERRED 
TO THE GERMINATION BOX. 

Every tenth ear is numbered. 



We will assume that the six kernels from ear No. i all showed 
strong root and stem sprouts. That is, the stem sprout was of good 
length and large in diameter. A long, slender sickly stem sprout in- 
dicates weakness. In other words, ear No. i is a vital seed ear. 
Move to ear No. 2. The kernels in square No. 2 show five healthy 
sprouts, but the sixth is small and has quit growing. This is not a 
first-class ear for seed. If you have much more seed than you will 
use, then push this ear back until one-half or three-quarters of its 
length extends back of the line of ears. By this action, you mean 
to throw this ear out entirely and not plant a single kernel from 
such an unreliable source. But do not take the ear out immediately 
because the arrangement of the row of ears would be altered and 
confusion would result. On the other hand, should the supply of seed 



READING THE TEST 



125 



corn be a little short this ear will be pushed back but a quarter length. 
This means that you will save all such ears and give them another 
test to eliminate the very weakest, and plant the best if necessary. 

Pass to ear No. 3. You are surprised to find an apparently sound 
ear has three kernels which failed to germinate. The other three 
are weak and growth has already ceased. You pronounce this a bad 
ear and push it back three-fourths of its length in the row. Ear No. 
4 shows six strong. Ear No. 5 shows six: germinated, but they are 
all weak and one died soon after the sprout came out. This is 
bad and is pushed back. This process is continued, studying the out- 
come of each ear carefully. It is an interesting study and requires 
good judgment. 




AN EXTENSIVE TES E 

More uniform temperature can be obtained when the boxes are elevated. 

After the two hundred ears have been classified as to condition of 
vitality, they should 1x' jjilcd up in their respecti\o classes. The bad 
ears had better be fed to the stock at once to prevent any chance 
of their becoming mixed with the good seed through carelessness or 
the mistake of helpers. The weak ears should be rearranged on the 
floor in another room, or any place out of the way, and another 
test run for them. 

Mr. Burnett found that it cost $1.20 to test one hundred ears by the 
sawdust-box method, allowing 20 cents per hour for two hours' labor 
in testing, and 80 cents for the cost of buying the material and making 
the box. This refers to tlie cost of the first one Inindred. subsequent 
tests cost less. 



1J6 



CORN 




THE WRONG WAY TO PLACE KERNELS IN A GERMINATION BOX. 

The result of test is difficult to ascertain. (See page 121.) 




AFTER READING THE TEST 



COS'I" OF TESTING 127 

COST OF TESTING— The cost of testing seed corn involves the 
following factors :* 

1. Time required to prepare the tester to receive the corn. 

2. Time required in placing the corn in the tester. 

3. Attention required by the tester after the test is begun. 

4. Time required to read the test. 

5. Possibility of seeing all parts of the roots and shoots as an aid 
in determining relative vigor. 

6. Amount of corn which may be tested at one time. 

7. Comparative cost of tester. 

8. Durability of tester. 

9. Compactness and lightness in moving tester from one place 
to another. 

The following statement taken from a personal letter from a seed 
corn grower who tested every ear of seed shows the approximate 
cost of testing seed corn with the sawdust box. Remember though 
that the germination boxes, cloths, etc., used in these tests and figured 
in the cost of testing may be used over several times. 

"Yours at hand and contents noted. It cost me to test my corn 
last winter, as nearly as I can figure, about 28 cents per bushel. 

"I used boxes 34x4 feet that held 4 1-2 bushels or 358 ears. There 
were eight of these boxes, with four and one-half yards of muslin to 
the box. Sawdust free. 

Muslin, 35 yards at g cents $ 3-i.S 

Time to get boxes ready, 4 hours at 15 cents 60 

Cost of filling box with kernels, 3 hours per box, and 8 

boxes 24 hours at 15 cents 3.60 

Oil to furnish heat, one gallon per day at 12 cents (Time 

to germinate, 10 days) 1.20 

Time to take oflf test, 10 hours at 15 cents 1.50 



Total $10.0 

Thirty-six bushels $10.05 

One bushel, almost 28" 



'Iowa Bulletin No. 135 



128 



CORN 




THE "RAG DOLL" METHOD OF TESTING SEED CORN 

The "Rag Doll" test commends itself for convenience, simplicity, 
economy* and accuracy. With reference to the accompanying illus- 
trations, it may be explained as follows : 

(1) Using bleached muslin one yard wide, tear into strips (cross- 
wise) about nine inches in width. Each strip (9x36 inches) will serve 
for testing twenty ears of corn. Mark off the strip with heavy crayon, 




1--The "Ras Doll" filled anrl ready to roll. 



first lengthwise in the middle and then crosswise in squares of about 
two and one-half inches each. Squares may be numbered as shown 

*In No. 6 of the illustrations there are twenty-five dolls or approximately five bushels of seed in 
test. This required only six yards of muslin which may be used time after time. With the 
"Rag Doll" there is no dirt or litter, and comparatively little room is required. 



riii: RAG noi.i. 'i'i:sr 




2 — The "Rasj Doll" fille'l, rolled and ready to soak. 

ill illustration. This will leave about six inches of extra space at each 
end of the doll. 

Moisten the cloth and s])rcad out on a l)i)ard or table in front of the 
ears to be tested. Take six kernels from each ear as directed for the 
"sawdust box test."" Arrange kernels in order with tips all pointing- 
the same direction and crosswise of the doll. 




3 — Soaking tlic "Dolls'. 



4 — Draining. .t — l!\icket prepared for I'acking "Dolls' 

6 — "Dolls" packed. 



(2) When the squares corresponding- to the numbered ears have 
all been tilled, take some moist sawdust, strip of burlap, blotting 
paper or other material and roll in one end of the doll for a central 
core to provide freer circulati(^n of the air and better moisture facili- 
ties. Complete the rolling of the doll. Roll fairly compact. The ker- 
nels will be held in place within the doll l)y the moist muslin. 




7— Sprinkle the "Dolls" 
occasionally. 



8 — Unriillin.n the ''Doir". ShowinK sprouU curled because 
kernels were placed wrong. 



130 CORN 

On the outside of the doll, mark the number of ears it includes as 
1-20, 21-40, etc. Tie the doll in the middle, not too tightly. A rubber 
band is best. Bands may also be placed about each end of the doll 
until after soaking as an extra precaution against loss of any of the 
kernels. 

(3) Soak the dolls in water over night. (8 to 10 hours, prefer- 
ably.) 

(4) Drain the dolls for a short time after soaking 

(5) Pack the dolls in a bucket, tub or box. Place some bricks or 
other material in the bottom to provide free circulation of air and to 
insure proper drainage. Then line with wet cloth or burlap. 

(6) Pack dolls on end (with crowns of the kernels to the top), 
and fold wet cloth used in lining the bucket or box over the top. 

(7) Set the bucket in a warm place. It is well to moisten the 
dolls by sprinkling occasionally with warm water in order to keep 
them from getting too dry. 

(8) The test should be ready to read in from five to six days. If 
the doll is unrolled with ordinary care the sprouted kernels will all 
remain in place. The last illustration (No. 8) shows a doll being un- 
rolled in which the kernels have been placed wrong, being parallel 
with the cloth strip. Notice that the sprouts are curled. This could 
have been avoided by arranging the kernels crosswise of the doll and 
then packing the doll with the crowns of the kernels to the top. 

The cloths may be used many times, but should be scalded each 
time after being used, to kill mold, etc. 

SHELLING AND GRADING. Butts and tips had better be 
shelled off by hand, because the number of irregular kernels and the 
extent ol crooked rows can best be ascertained by the eye. The 
practice of cutting ofit the butts and tips with an ax, produces many 
split kernels and wastes some corn by shelling. Shelling all the seed 
by hand, where a limited amount is used, is a method not to be criti- 
cised. A small hand sheller, however, accomplishes the same end 
much more rapidly. One man can turn and feed one ear at a time 
very conveniently. 

In front of the hand sheller have, for example, three boxes labeled 
large, medium, and small kernels. Besides the man who turns the 
sheller, another man will be needed to look after the grading. He 
should be provided with two pans, one to catch the shelled corn 
while he is emptying the other. The kernels of each ear thus being 
caught separately in a pan, can be graded to the size very accurately. 
If, for example, No. i has large kernels, empty these into the box 
marked "large kernels." Should ear No. 2 have medium sized ker- 



ijRAin.Nc; SKED 



131 



nels, empty them into the box marked "medium sized kernels," while 
the small kernels from ear No. 3 should be emptied into the box 
marked "small kernels." You will now have three sizes of seed — 
large, medium and small. In case some of the ears have especially 
long kernels, it is well to make another grade or two, as may seem 
necessary. The man who grades can rapidly empty the pans into 
the proper boxes. 

So far as this operation is concerned, the corn has been graded 
without the use of the corn sorter. The corn sorter will, however, 
take out the small, excessively thick, and also the large irregular ker- 
nels. The three different lots which you have graded — large, med- 
ium, and small kernels, may each respectively be run through a corn 
sorter and in this way the ill-shaped, small, and excessively large 
kernels which were left on the ears after shelling off the butts and 
tips will be removed. The sorter will do it more rapidly than it could 
be done by hand. 

Many patent graders are appearing on the market. The principle 
of sorting by gravity is the best one so far evolved. With the in- 
creased volume of business to be done by seed houses and large 
growers, the commercial grader will come into use very generally. 
The chief objection to them is the fact that they take little or no 
consideration of the length of kernel, the very factor which causes 
difficulty in planting. 




HAND SHAKE CORN SORTER 

Very rapid and efficient sorting can be done in a small way 
with this device. 

In letters to the Farm Crops Department from 186 representative 
fanners over the State of Iowa, 86 stated that they tried to grade their 
seed corn cither liy hand or l)y a small grader. Xcarh' all of them 
followed the practice of shelling otl the tij) and butt kernels. 

Corn with a few years careful selection back of it will be found 
to produce kernels much more uniform as to size and shape :han 
that which is produced from the common run of seed. 

The Experiment Station of Indiana conducted a test showing the 



132 



CORN 



importance of grading the seed, the results of which are recorded in 
the following table : 

TABLE NO. 29 
EFFECT OF GRADING SEED CORN. (Records made in 100 drops) 



No. of 
Kernels 
Dropped 



Middle 

Kernels 

only 



Whole Ear 



Deep and 

Shallow 

Kernels jNIixed 



Deep Kernels 
only 



Shallow 
Kernels 
only 



1 




1 time 






2 times 


2 


8 times 


t) tmies 


5 times 


4 times 


2 times 


3 


92 times 


66 times 


7S times 


92 times 


95 times 


4 




25 times 


18 times 


4 times 


1 time 


5 




1 time 


2 times 






6 




1 time 









*In each case it was desired to drop three kernels per hill, and 
several plates were tried. A satisfactory stand with the butt and tip 
kernels mixed in the seed was found impossible. The same was true 
when deep and shallow kernels were mixed. When the butt and tip 
kernels were removed and the ears with the deep and shallow kernels 
shelled separately, the drop was about perfect. 









" "* 


% 








WA 




m. 




\V ^ ' "BL 




■■-■'"— , , ^m 




d^li^f f 






SI-- 


■ 




'i^B 


W'rnTi 
















^^ 


cA m 


kri 


^-l^-'H 


i^Mnil 




HHil 


<''!•:■ 


H|P 




Hi 




1 


^^H^^tt^H 


1 




^Sr 




* ^ ^ 



A PATENT TESTER WHICH HAS THE GOOD 
OUALITY OF SEPARATING THE KERNELS 
6F EACH EAR INTO LITTLE CUPS, 
WHICH MAY BE SET OITT IN FRONT OF 
THE EAR. 



*Indiana Bulletin No. 110 (Revised Edition) 



tAl.lHKAriN'c; PLAN TKR 



133 



Hand Sorting the Graded Shelled Corn. There may be present a 

limited number of immature and c\cn blackened kernels which were 
pollinated later than the others. 

The germination test, (tf course, did not pro\ e their presence. There 
will be more or less mice eaten grains and kernels cracked by the 
sheller. Hence it will pay the smaller grower to have the children sort 
these out and the larger farmer can economically afford to hire it done. 
To facilitate this process, a convenient method is to pour the shelled 
corn on the table in a pile. At a little distance below the edge of 
the table, a drawer may be opened or a bench built. Place two 
pans at this point. The operator should be seated and can handily 
sort the discarded kernels into one pan and the desirable ones into 

the other. This process is 
more rapid than usually con- 
sidered. Allowing the 
shelled corn to roll down an 
incline to the operator will 
save time. 

CALIBRATING THE 
PLANTER. The corn 
planter should now be set 
up in good order, ready for 
calibration. This Imay be 
done on the barn floor or, 
if the weather permits, out- 
side on the dry earth. A 
separate pair of planter 
plates must be selected for 
the planting of each grade 
of corn. Prop the planter 
up so that it will be free 
from the floor. It is nec- 
essary to use but one side 
in calibrating, unless it be- 
comes necessary to file the 
plates. This is not to be 
advised, as it may take con- 
siderable time, and other 
plates can be purchased. 
The wheel can now be 
turned by hand with lit- 
tle effort and at the same time a ' record taken of the rate of 




STANDARD SEED CORN TESTER 



Shows method of heating 
^foistiire inaint.iined 



uniformly, 
easily. 



134 



CORN 



dropping. It is well to have two working at this — one to turn the 
wheel and the other to keep record. The first set of plates may not 
drop more than 65 per cent of a perfect drop. That is, if three kernels 
be taken as the required number, the plates may only plant three 
kernels 65 times out of 100. 




THREE TYPES OF KERNELS WHICH WHEN SHELLED TOGETHER 

CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO BE DROPPED ACCURATELY 

BY THE ORDINARY PLANTER. 

Another set of plates may have to be tried. This should be con- 
tinued until a drop of over 90 per cent is secured. Planter boxes with 
hinges are very convenient for'the transition in these tests. The edge 



C:()RN GROWER'S RULES 135 

drop planter has conic into very general use. It takes into ac- 
count the thickness of the kernel ana drops one at a time until the re 
Quired number have accumulated, then the check wires free them to 
gether. For the farmer who grades his corn thoroughly and tests his 
planter each year, the edge drop will do more accurate work. On the 
other hand, where the undesirable practice is followed of planting 
all sizes of kernels with the same plate, the round hole plate will come 
nearer planting uniformly under all conditions. By calibrating the 
planter, the accuracy of drop has been increased in some cases as 
much as 19 per cent, by simply filing the holes until the kernels 
dropped through more uniformly. Tests of 72 per cent have been 
raised to 85 per cent; 42 to 61 ; 74.6 to 89.8. Of 178 correspondents 
replying to inquiries of the Farm Crops Department, 153 replied af- 
firmatively in regard to calibrating and testing the drop of :heir 
planters. 

The planter should be calibrated for each of the three grades. The 
corn should then be sacked and the planter plates tied with the '^ack. 
Where different varieties are to be planted by the same machme, 
oftentimes the medium plates for one variety will plant the large 
kernels of another. 

THE CORN GROWERS REMINDER 
Remember. 

1. That home-grown seed is the surest. 

2. To harvest the seed corn before the first killing frost. 

3. To hang" it up in a well ventilated place. 

4. That corn full of moisture is liable to freeze and thus lose its 
vitality. 

5. To store seed in warm place during extremely cold weather. 

6. To make a germination box during the winter. 

7. To test each ear of seed corn during the month of March. 

8. To grade the tested seed. 

9. To calibrate the corn planter to drop the graded seed. 

10. That poor seed is the chief cause of poor stand. 

11. That a poor stand means a small yield. 



136 CORN 

COLLATERAL READING 

Selection of Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 193. 
Corn Improvement, 

Indiana Bulletin No. no. 
Seed Selection According to Specific Gravity, 

New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 256. 
Seed Gram, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 24 (Press). 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 65. 
Increasing the Yield of Corn, 

Tennessee Bulletin No. 2. 
Seed Corn Buying and Judging, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 225. 
Seed Corn, Selection and Preparation, 

Iowa Bulletin No. Jj. 
The Improvement of Corn, 

Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 133. 
Corn Improvement for Missouri, 

Missouri Bulletin No. 59. 
Selection of Seed Corn, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 68. 
Handling Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 244. 
A Study of Delaware Seed Corn, 

Delaware Bulletin No. yj. 
Seed Corn, Better Grades of, 

Page 34 of U. S. Report No. 83 
The Testing of Corn for Seed, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 96. 
A Test of the Vitality of Seed Corn, 

Illinois Circular No. 49. 
Selecting Seed Corn, 

Florida Bulletin No. 46. 
A. B. C. of Corn Culture, 

Professor P. G. Holden. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 33. 



CDl.l.Ari-RAL READING 137 

Indian Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 
Seed Corn, Testing of for Vitality, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 136. 
Selection of Seed Corn, Method and IMnie, 

Idaho Bulletin No. 57. 
Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 272. 
Testing Seed Corn. 

Iowa Bulletin No. 135. 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 126. 

Indiana Circular No. 2. 

Ohio Circular No. 71. 

Indiana Bulletin No. HO, (Revised Edition) 

County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CARE OF THE CORN CROP 
PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING 

1. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 

2. PLOWING THE GROUND. 

A. Objects of Plowing. 

B. Points of Merit in Plowing, 

C. Depth of Plowing. 

(i) Deep Plowing. 
{2) Shallow Plowing. 

D. Fall Plowing. 

E. Spring Plowing. 

F. Plowing Sod. 

3. TREATMENT OF PLOWED GROUND BEFORE PLANT- 

ING. 

A. Disc. 

B. Special Harrows. 

C. Smoothing Harrow. 

D. Rolling. 

4. PLANTING WITH CHECK ROWER. 

A. Time of Planting. 

B. Depth of Planting. 

C. Distance Between Rows. 

D. Number of Stalks Per Hill. 

E. What is a Perfect Stand? 

F. Replanting of Corn. 

5. DRILLING CORN. 

6. LISTING. 

A. Preparing the Ground. 

B. Use of the Lister. 



RAKIN(i S TALKS 139 

PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 

Small grain stubble lann wliicli is to be ph^wcd in the frill should 
be disced thoroughly immediately after the grain shocks are re- 
moved. The surface will dry out less and the weeds will recei^•e 
quite a setback. The moisture which Avould have been evapo'ated 
from the surface will be stopped in its upward passage just beneath 
the sub mrface strata. The soil will remain loose and when plowed 
later will not turn up in lumps. 



Hi 






^S^i^jv^ 








1^ 


>■} V 



HEAVY CORN STALK RAKE. 
Stirs the ground more and will work where the hay rake is loo light. 

Where the ground is low and subject to overflow, often weeds grow 
so rank after harvest as to necessitate their being mowed before any 
plowing is done. In localities which practice the short rotation of corn 
and oats or corn and wheat the stubble is often covered with barnyard 
manure before plowing. The heat and moisture of autumn and the 
freezing of winter disintegrate the soil and decompose the straw and 
other material to such an extent that by planting time the following 
spring the humus thus added is thoroughly mixed wih the soil.* 

The rolling uplands in southern Iowa lack very much in humus, 
hence the stalks should always be incorporated in the already sticky 
silty soil. Corn planted the first year following sod, may proiluce 
such an excessive growth of stalks as to make raking necessary. 

Where corn is cut for silage the etubble may be split up and the 
rows leveled to advantage by discing before plowing. Land upon which 
fodder shocks have stood all winter is better treated thus also. But 
the greater number of fields in the corn belt are stocked with cattle 

*Tn case of a heavy growth or application of coarse organic malciial tu l>c plowed under, it is 
generally recognized that tlic innctici- "f ili--iiMt; is ailvisrthlc 



140 CORN 

during the winter and when spring comes the bare stalks remain 
standing. A railroad iron or heavy harrow is usually used to drag 
them down. The practice of raking them up with a hay rake or 
heavy corn-stalk rake is less in vogue at present because the soil 
requires the humus and fertilizing- materials, which are largely lost 
through the process of burning the stalks before planting. The 



SINGLE ROW STALK CUTTER. 

The stalk cutter can be used early in the spring before the 
field is dry enough to disc. The hooks in front straight- 
en out the stalks lengthwise with the row. 

chief arguments advanced in favor of burning corn stalks are: first, 
the freeing of the surface soil of trash which would otherwise pre- 
vent the planter from running at a uniform depth, and may even at 
times cause the deposition of kernels on the surface ; and second, the 
partly covered stalks catch in the shovels of the cultivator the first 
time over and dislodge whole hills of corn. 

The single-row stalk cutter is little used at present because, except 
for cutting the stalks, it does very little toward loosening the surface 
of the soil. Its only claims of practical value are: first, the fact that 
being of light draft, it can be used early when the ground is not yet 
dry enough for heavier tools; and second, a boy can operate it. 



DISCS 



141 



Since the implement companies have put out double-row cutters, 
drawn by three horses, the single-row cutters have largely fallen into 
disuse. 




FULL DISC HARROW. 
The most commonly used in Iowa. 



Stalk fields are now usually disced in the spring before plowing. By 
so doing, the surface soil is loosened and a dust mulch thereby se- 
cured which accomplishes three things: First, the surface openings 
of the capillary tubes are broken. This not only prevents the loss 




SPADING DISC HARROW. 
When set at an angle it will cut stalks completely. In sod 
<he pieces of turf are thrown about, but not cut up. 



142 CORN 

of moisture, but that moisture which does rise is held just below the 
surface ; Second, this moisture being present keeps the soil from dry- 
ing out, and when turned over by the mold board the soil crumbles 
and falls into the furrow loosely. Third, the surface which has been 
previously fined now becomes the bottom of the furrow slice, which 
because of its structure reunites with the several capillary tubes, thus 
re-establishing the course of the moisture upward. 




BREAKING PLOW. 

Used in plowing sod. Notice that the moldboard is 
very sloping. 



Weeds and grass allowed to grow up in corn-stalk land in the 
spring, before plowing, are first injurious to the physical condition 
of the soil because they compact and harden the surface, which in 
turn allows the rapid evaporation of moisture. When this green 
mat is turned under later, it acts as a partition between the furrow 
slice and the bottom of the furrow, thus interfering with the capillary 
moisture. Second, weeds also utilize a large amount of available 
plant food, and at the same time the decaying green material 
renders the soil more or less acid. Rotting green manure requires a 
great deal of moisture which must necessarily be drawn from the sur- 
face soil. Often the furrow slice becomes very dry within a few days. 

Two methods of discing are practiced. By one, the field is disced 
with the stalks standing. In such cases, the disc is driven at an angle 
to the rows across the field. The ridges are leveled and the stalks 
cut to pieces. The other plan, the one usually practiced, is to harrow 
or drag the stalks down and then disc them crosswise of the row ; 
that iSj crosswise of the way the stalks are laying. In case of heavy 
stalks, the discs, even if very heavy and sharp, will often ride over 
if they are piled deeply between the rows. The advantage of the first 
method is becoming apparent to many. 



Mi:riiui)s OF I'l.owiNci 



143 



Discing sod land in the fall, when it is to be plowed immediately, 
is of little service. At that time the disc will not cut deeply because 
the ground is so dry. The freezing and thawing of winter and spring 
have time to disintegrate the layers. Experience has shown that the 
rougher such sod turns up, the greater will be this erosion because of 
the lodgment of snow and the openness which admits the entrance 
of rain. In plowing sod in a short rotation, where a large crop of le- 




SULKY PLOW. 

Used in plowing both sod and stubble. Being heavy and having 
a rolling coulter in front, this plow will operate even where con- 
siderable trash is on the ground. 



gumes or grass is on the surface, a "weed-hook" should be used in 
order to drag everything into the furrow to insure complete covering. 
This is essential for proper decomposition. 

Where sod is to be plowed in the spring, a thorough discing jusl 
when the frost is out two or three inches, will tear up the surface 
layer and allow the furrow slice to break over like stubble ground. 

When such a short time remains in w^hich to rot the surface turf 
and reconnect the capillary tubes, it is essential that the underside 
of the surface slice not only lay closely to the bottom of the furrow, 
but that such surface be of fine structure. The disc also disturbs and 
destroys many hibernating injurious insects. 

PLOWING THE GROUND.— The Objects of Plowing Are: To 
alter the structure of the soil to a considerable depth, and to bury com- 
pletely any vegetation or other organic matter on the surface of the 
ground. It is essential that any legume, grass or stubble on the sur- 



144 CUKN 

face be turned completely under. Live stock farmers usually apply 
manure to land just before plowing for corn, in order to get the most 
out of it in the "money crop." The complete burial of this material is 
desirable. 




GANG PLOW IN OPERATION. 
Plows two furrows at a time. There are also plows with three or more 
mold boards. 

First, such organic matter, if present in large quantities, may be 
in the way of cultivation. 

Second, partial covering of easily or partly decomposed material, 
especially in loose and sandy soils, causes a loss of plant food. The 
extreme porosity of the seed bed also makes it difficult for the roots 
to spread. 

The Points of Merit in Plowing. A straight furrow of uniform 
width and depth. The farmers of England and Scotland encourage 
their sons to take pride in a clean furrow. To many western Amer- 
icans, such intelligent interest seems foolish, the real point of merit 
with them being to get over the ground as rapidly as possible. A 
number of localities in Indiana and Ohio have within the last few 



GUUD PLOWING 



145 



years held plowing matches which have shown the skill of the younger 
lads of the community. At Wick and Cherokee, Iowa, similar con- 
tests are carried on each year, at which time speakers from a distance 
are invited to speak and a day is set aside for a local picnic and edu- 
cational outing. 

A clean-cut shce both on its land side and floor. Besides indicating 
pride and interest in plowing, a clean land side and a consistent flooi 
of even width and depth insures a complete alteration of structure. In- 







DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIRECTION OF THE CAP- 
ILLARY TUBES AND STRUCTURE OF THE SOIL 
EARLY IN THE SPRING AFTER THE SURFACE 
HAS DRIED OUT AND NO CULTIVATION 
HAS BEEN DONE. 

The tubes extend to the surface and convey the moisture from 
below to their upper extremities, where it is discharged and 
carried away by evaporation due to the sun aiid the velocity 
of the wind. 



Stead of the furrow slice being completely inverted it should be left 
more or less on edge in order to permit the most efifective action of 
weathering agencies and of implements in the preparation of the seed 
bed. 

Uniformly plowed ridges. Where a small plow follows a larger 
one, often the ridges are very uneven. ]\Iore surface is exposed for 
drying out, and, as a rule, the trash is not well covered. Fully twice 
as much work is required to get such a field in shape for the corn 
planter. This uneven ridging sometimes occurs on hillsides, in which 
case it cannot be prevented. 

Complete burial of the grass or stubble is also important. 

Depth of Plowing. This is a question that cannot be answered 
definitely, but must be considered in connection with the character 
of the soil, the time of the season, the climate, and the purpose to 
which the ground is to be put. 



146 



CURN 



Deep plowing. For a deep, rich soil, deep plowing is very gen- 
erally considered best if done in the fall. Fred McCulloch, of Hart- 
wick, Iowa, reports that fewer weeds appeared in the corn field 
which was plowed in the; spring five inches deep than in the one 
plowed three inches in depth. For thin clay soils, sub-soiling is bet- 
ter than very deep plowing, because it does not turn the compact clay 
to the surface, yet at the same time it loosens the soil to a consider- 




DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SURFACE SOIL STIRREP 
SLIGHTLY AND A MULCH ESTABLISHED. 

This is brought about by discing corn stalk ground early 
in the spring. The moisture rising from below is not 
allowed to escape, but is checked in its upward course, 
just below this mulch. 

able depth. Plowing should not be of the same depth from year to 
year, for by so doing the soil is not mixed well and a hard surface 
is left at the bottom of the furrow where the horses walk and the plow 
drags. A little sub-soil turned to the surface occasionally will be 
acted upon by the atmospheric elements and plant food liberated. As 
it becomes mixed with the surface soil and vegetable growth, the 
depth of surface soil will be increased. A compact soil is less per- 
vious to air and moisture, and if organic matter is covered too deeply 
it will not decay for some time on that account. In general, to accom- 
plish the most desirable results, it is advisable to plow a little deeper 
each season for several successive seasons, and then for one season 
give a plowing at about half of the depth of the deepest plowing. It 
is well to have the farm mapped, the various fields numbered and 
records kept of the annual treatment and production of each field. 

Shallow plowing. Shallow plowing is not practiced in the fall '.u 
the corn belt, but is customary in the spring because the deeper the 
plowing the greater is the amount of labor required to re-establish the 
capillary connection with the sub-soil. This labor is performed by 
Nature when plowing is done in the fall, while much discing, harrow- 
ing, and even rolling is often necessary to rectify the severing of 
capillary connection in the spring. This capillarity is not re-estab 



FAIL I'l.OW'lNC) 



147 



lished so readily with deep plowing" as when the plowing is shallow. 
Plowing breaks up the capillary connection with the sub-soil, 
which must in turn be re-established or vigorous plant growth is im- 
possible. Deep spring plowing and spring sub-soiling are likely to 
result in diminished crops, especially if done after the spring rains. 
The loosening of the soil to great depths admits air and facilitates 
the loss of soil moisture. It also interrupts capillarity so that the 
moisture is not readily drawn from greater depths. 




DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE MOLD BOARD UPON 

THE CAPILLARY TUBES IN THE SOIL. 
The layers of soil by gliding over each other break off the tubes. The 

more abrupt the mold board the greater the amount of crumbling of 

the furrow-slice. 



Fall Plowing. Fall plowing is not considered advisable in the 
south, where the wanters are veiy mild, accompanied wath little or no 
cold weather. In Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Nebraska, the temper- 
ature becomes low and the weather is so variable as to cause con- 
siderable heaving of the surface. Freezing disintegrates the soil, 
and the mellowing of the furrow slice allows the nitrifying bacteria 
to begin action early in the spring. Weedy areas are plowed in the 
fall to check the growth and bury the immature seeds. In fact, many 
consider this the only object of fall plow^ing. Wherever a crop, 
whether a crop of weeds or of fall forage, grows late in the fall, the 
following corn crop is slow in starting. That is, the available plant 
food was drawn upon until cold weather set in, thus not allowing the 
formation of soluble compounds during the warm w^eather of the 
autumn months. In the rougher corn sections, fall plow^ed fields 
wash so badly and ditches form so quickly that the practice should 
be discontinued. This is especially true of soils which have been 
depleted of their humus. There being no organic matter present to 
reti-in the moisture and hold the particles of soil, the whole mass 



148 



CORN 



slumps away and is carried to lower levels. Such conditions have 
compelled corn growers in these localities to rotate, and in some 
cases to even sow the fields to grass permanently. 




DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POSITION OP THE CAPIL 

LARY TUBES AFTER A FIELD HAS BEEN 

PLOWED TO A DEPTH OF 4 TO 6 INCHES. 

As the furrow-slice is turned they are broken. Hence the 
moisture from below is checked in its upward current 
just below the bottom of the furrow. Hence plants ger- 
minating near the surface are cut oft from all supply 
beneath. This is why corn on spring plowed ground 
starts slowly in the early part of the season. 

Fall plowing cannot be recommended for all climates and local 
ities, but should be more generally practiced than at present. If a 
cover crop or sod be turned under in the fall, decomposition wil) 




DIAGRAM SHOWING WHAT EFFECT DISCING, HAR- 
ROWING AND ROLLING HAS UPON THE 
PLOWED FIELD. 

Of course the surface is made much finer. But the disc 
reaches down to greater depths and begins to settle the 
loose earth upon the furrow-bottom. The packing grad- 
ually re-establishes the capillary connection. The fact 
that spring plowing requires some time during the early 
part of the season to accomplish this process tends u> 
hold the moisture of the soil until later in the summer 
when it is most needed. 



increase the amount of plant food available for the crop the next sum- 
mer. This is true to some extent even though the crop is not turned 



DO NOT NEGLECT FALL PLOWING 



149 



under, inasmuch as the simple loosening of the sod admits atmos- 
pheric oxygen and increases chemical action upon vegetable and min- 
eral matter. Fall plowing is one of the methods of combatting grub 
worms, cut worms and wire worms, which are often destructive to 
corn. Because the surface of soil plowed in the fall is dryer at plant- 
ing time in the spring than that of the ground not so treated, it does 
not necessarily follow that there is less moisture in fall plowed land. 

I 







TWO SECTION, 60 TOOTH. 10 FOOT SMOOTHING HARROW 
The teeth are adjustable by the use of the levers. 

In fact, fall plowed ground should contain more moisture for the 
growing crop the following season than that land plowed in the spring. 
With fall plowing the rain and moisture may better penetrate the 
sub-soil. Because of the rough surface much moisture is held which 
might otherwise be lost. Not infrequently poor management of fall 
plowed ground causes in the spring a very serious loss of moisture. 
Ground plowed in the fall should be thoroughly disced early the 
following spring to prevent heavy loss of moisture by evaporation 
When the ground is left in a rough condition not only will the stirred 
portion of the soil be readily acted upon and dried out by the winds 
and sun of early spring, but there is ready access to the sub-soil as 




CURVED KNIFE HARROW. 
AlthoTiph not in general use, this harrow has the advantage of the running cut, which is 
especially valuable in pulverizing sod. 

well. Fall plowed land which has been thus neglected may be ex- 
pected to contain less moisture than had the ground been plowed 
in the spring. By the use of the disc and harrow in early spring 

(6) 



150 CORN 

on fall plowed ground, a surface mulch can be established which 
will prevent this excess evaporation and insure to the farmer a 
greater amount of moisture in the soil for the following crop than had 
the land been plowed in the spring. Fall plowed ground properly 
cared for in the spring may be expected to mature a crop of corn a 
little earlier than will the spring plowing, and in case of a dry season 
there will be much less damage from drought. 

Spring Plowing, Fields which have been in corn the previous 
year, must, according to the common practice of husking in the field 




DISC PLOW. 
Used in low wet ground where a mold board plow would not scour. 

and allowing stock to forage among the stalks during the winter, be 
plowed in the spring. Just how early this can be done depends to a 
large extent upon, first, the weather during April and May. Exces- 
sive rainfall and a lack of sunshine will prevent plowing even on well 
drained fields. As long as the bottom of the furrow slice turns up 
slick and the particles of soil run together rather than crumble, plow- 
ing had better be postponed. Such a surface will bake immediately 
in the sun and the clods thus formed will sometimes remain un- 
changed during the entire season. Second, the lay of the land. Fields 
sloping to the north are sometimes 10 to 14 days later in drying out 
in the spring than are similar areas facing the south. Low areas 
underlaid with an impervious clay often require the warm winds of 
May to evaporate the surface moisture sufficiently to admit of plow- 
ing. Third, the amount of available labor. Where large areas are 
to be plowed, although the teams are started early in the season it is 



PLOWING son 



151 



sometimes late before all the furrows are turned. The sowing of 
large areas of small grain also often prevents early plowing. Not 
many years since, it was a common idea to allow fields to grow up 
to weeds which were turned under, with the supposition that so 
many enemies had been destroyed for the crop of the season. Think- 
ing farmers have found that it is the w^eed seeds which are turned 
up from the bottom of the furrow slice which do the most damage. 
These should be brought to the surface early in the spring in order 
that they may be destroyed before planting time. Early plowing 
also admits of more thorough preparation of the seed bed just before 
planting. 




GENERAL PURPOSE PLOW. 

Mold board is set at sufScient angle to allow the use of this plow in 
sod or stubble. 



Plowing Sod. The virgin sod land of the corn belt is rapidly 
becoming a thing of the past. A study of statistics of wild hay mead- 
ow shows a steady decrease in acreage. In such land the breaking- 
plow is used to some extent in peeling back a shallow furrow in the 
fall, a deeper plowing to follow in the spring. Little alteration of 
structure can be brought about in turning the \-irgin prairie sod. 

First, the heavy draft due to the obstinate turf produced 
by the roots of prairie grasses, and second, the fact that considerable 



152 



CORN 




time is needed lo decompose such turf, requires that it be plowed in 
the fall, thus allowing the freezing to break up the furrow slice. The 
closer the furrow slices are laid together, the greater the retention 
of moisture and consequent heaving. Because the roots fill the sur- 
face layer of soil so full of humus 
and undecayed organic matter that 
cultivation of the crop is difficult the 
first year, the mat of grasses on the 
surface is usually burned before 
plowing, because the sod is slow 
in reconnecting the capillary tubes 
and "firing" of the corn often results 
during the summer because of this 
condition. 

Because of the newness of this 
soil and the large amount of plant 
food which is available early in the 
season, flax is largely used for the 
first year's crop, especially in the 
northern districts. In the southern 
part of Iowa, the northern part of 
Missouri, and over a large part of 
Kansas, winter wheat is often sownthe first year. 

Rotation of crops has 
now come to be a perma- 
nent factor in improved 
farming. Clover and tim- 
othy meadow, because of 
a short rotation in which 
corn is the heavy yielder 
and money crop, hardly 
ever becomes really sod- 
ded. Furthermore, be- 
cause corn follows them 
directly and is expected to 
produce heavily the first 
season, a greater amount 
of alteration in structure in the sod is desired. Hence a plow 
with steeper mold board is used. Plowing pasture lands and 
meadows in the fall has five distinct advantages. In the first place, the 
work can be done at a more slack time. Second, the freezing and 



STEEL JOINTER. 

Used to tear up stiflf sod just in front of 
the mold board. 





TYPES OF ROLLING COULTERS. 



PREPARATION PREVIOUS TO PLANTING 



153 



thawing of the winter inontlis alters the physical structure of the soil. 
Third, the decon^position of the turned under organic matter renders 
plenty of plant food available for the use of the young corn plant in 
early spring. Fourth, capillary connection is re-established not only 
because of the changed structure of the soil, but also because the turf 
rots away. Fifth the hibernating quarters of many injurir)us insects 
are disturbed and destroyed. Some, such as the army worm, are 
turned under so deeply as to bury the pupa completely. 

If sod is plowed in the spring, it 
should be done early. 

First, the rush of farm work requires 
it. There will be plenty of corn-stalk 
land which canot be plowed until later 
because of being so wet. Wet sod, al- 
though it turn up slick on the bottom 
of the furrow slice, will not bake and 
become cloddy because of the presence 
of such an abundance of humus. 

Second, there is but a short time at 
best in which to re-establish the capil- 
lary connection. This is best accom- 
plished by early plowing, for when the 
sod is full of moisture it breaks up as 
it falls over and the turf has time to 
decay. 




ROLLING COULTER "WITH SHO'C 
IN FRONT WHICH PREVEXTS 
EXCESSIVE TRASH FROM 
LODGING ABOVE THE COUL- 
TER WITHOUT BEING CUT. 



Third, the sod has lost no moisture because of the growth of 
spring grasses. Such grass, if allowed to grow until later, not only 
uses moisture and available plant food, but in itself is a menace, 
because it lays in the bottom of the furrow and prevents the rise of 
moisture from below. 



The time of plowing sod in the spring varies widely. Throughout 
the Corn Belt this time ranges from the fore part of March to the fifth 
of April. However most of the sod, especially blue grass, is plowed 
in the fall, and then disced and harrowed before planting. 

TREATMENT OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLANTING. 

Much stress has been laid upon the question of having a proper seed 
bed for corn. There is no question but that corn well put in is alread3'' 



154 



CORN 



half tended. The definition of the ideal conditions which can some 
years almost be reached are, first, soil of such physical condition that 
the smaller particles are compacted closely around the seed. This m- 




ROTARY DISC ATTACHED TO PLOW. 
Because it pulverizes the soil right off the mold board there is no chance 
for the formation of clods. 

sures perfect germination of viable seeds. Second. There should alsv) 
be plenty of available plant food. This is dependent upon air and 




SMOOTH STEEL ROLLER. 



moisture as well as bacteria. Third. Freedom from weed seeds. 
With the DisCo Experience and experiments have proved the val- 



DISCS 155 

ue of the disc. The agricultural press has been urging the corn grow 
ers to use it freely. Because the blades cut deeply into the newly 
turned-up mold, the spaces between the larger lumps of earth are 
reduced and the whole mass settles down more closely to the sub- 
soil. 

The full-bladed disc harrow for the general purpose of pulverizing 
and loosening the ground is the best tool yet devised. It has the ad 
vantage of being suitable for use on either sod, stubble or corn stalk 
lands. 

The cutaway and spading discs are also used in a more limited 
way, the former being adapted for cultivating hay lands, the latter 
more especially for corn stalk ground. 




FLANKER. 
Used in smoothing and packing. 

Discing spring plowing is a common practice among the farmers 
of the corn belt. Often heavy rains run the surface particles to- 
gether to such an extent that a tooth harrow is incapable of loosening 
them. Grain stubble which has been plowed the previous fall re- 
quires at least two discings before it is in shape to plant. 

The disc may be set deeper the first time than the second. Disc- 
ing both lengthwise and crosswise leaves no surface unturned. Fall- 
plowed sod should be disced very early in the spring because. 

First, the loosening of the surface admits air into the sod to de- 
compose the organic matter, which lies next to the bottom of the 
furrow. Because of this action, plant food is rendered available. 

Second. The physical condition of the soil being finer, the whole 
mass settles more closely upon the sub-soil, reuniting the capillary 
tubes and conducting moisture from the greater depths to the surface. 

Third. Weeds which have started to grow are destroyed. 



156 



CORN 



Fourth. The numerous weed seeds present in the surface soil 
are induced to germinate because of the admittance of warm air. They 
can be destroyed later by vigorous harrowing. 

Fifth. Helps to form a mulch and thus conserves moisture. 

Sod which is not plowed until spring, even though it is turned 
over as early as the weather permits, depends chiefly upon the disc 
for preparation. The firing of sod corn in July can usually be traced 
directly to spring plowing or an insufficient discing of fall plowing. 
Large pieces of turf admit the air and allow moisture to be taken di- 
rectly from the sub-soil. 




COMBINED PULVERIZER AND PACKER. 
Best adapted to grip clods and crush them. 



Special Harrows. For stony land, or in timbered sections where 
the teeth are liable to catch on roots, the spring-tooth harrow has a 
decided value. The teeth can be set to gouge forward and hence 
tear up sod more than the fixed tooth harrow. The later manufac- 
turers mount the frame on runners, which does away with bouncing 
eflfect common in spring-tooth harrows when set too deep. Some are 
also mounted on low trucks with the same end in view. 

Curved knife harrows and drag pulverizers are used to some 
extent, but where corn stalks are present in any number they ride 
over them too easily. For fining the surface of a field which has 
already been well worked, the pulverizer is especially well suited. 



Smoothing Harrow. The rigid, straight-toothed harrow does effi 
cient work on ground free from trash. Because of an excess of stalks 
the slant tooth and lever harrows are more practical and popular. 



HARROWING 157 

Large, four-section harrows covering i8 to 22 feet of surface are now 
largely used even on smaller farms, because of the high price of farm 
labor. One man and four horses can harrow between 30 and 40 acres 
in a single day. Because the harrow covers territory so rapidly 
and leaves the ground in such a good state of tilth, it should be used 
much more generally. Harrowing produces a finer tilth of the sur- 
face and thereby conserves the moisture already in the soil. Large 
lumps massed together have between them much air space. Such 
space allows the rain water to percolate to lower depths so rapidly 
that the growing plant cannot use it. At the same time, the lower- 
ing of the water level admits the surface air, which in turn dries out 
the individual lumps and robs them of their moisture. Roots will 
not develop in these open spaces, and not finding finer earth through 
which to extend themselves, soon die from lack of moisture and 
plant food. 

When plowing in the spring, the newly upturned furrow should 
never be allowed to remain unharrowed over half 1 day. By harrowing 
the ridges will be levelled, clods prevented from forming, and evapora- 
tion reduced. To do this, the plowman will have to unhitch from 
the plow and hitch to the harrow just before the close of each half 
day. A small s-ection drag drawn by an extra horse at the time of 
plowing also answers the purpose. A rotary disc in section just 
wide enough to cover the newly turned furrow, and working auto- 
matically, does tne pulverizing more thoroughly than any other meth- 
od. To the farmer in the corn districts of less than 24 inches of 
rainfall, this matter is important. To the grower in the low, wet 
districts, where the soil contains a large per cent of humus, the evap 
oration of excess moisture is desirable. 

If the ground be plowed too wet and turns over slick, then a 
day's drying may be necessary before any harrowing is done. A 
tooth harrow is of very little use on fall plowing, because the soil 
has cemented together too firmly. After sod plowing has been thor- 
oughly disced, the use of the harrow produces a finer and more uni- 
form surface. 

When desiring to tear up pieces of sod or loosen deeply the sur- 
face of a fall plowed field, the harrow teeth should be set straight, or 
almost so. Where a field is harrowed twice before planting, the teeth 
should be set at an acute angle. If the surface is of fine tilth, but a 
little uneven, allowing the harrow to drag over completely flat will 
do much toward producing an ideal seedbed. In all events, to se- 



158 



CORN 



cure an even depth of planting the land should be free from ridges. 
In order to facilitate planting and to better see the line of the marker, 
the field should be harrowed crosswise just previous to planting. In 
sections of little rainfall during the summer months, and in areas 
v/here the soil xS of a fine, silty nature, it will always pay to again 
harrow fields which have been previously put in good shape, but 
have been rained upon heavily before the corn was planted. 

The harrow is of especial value as a weed killer. Newly germi- 
nated weeds have few roots and are easily torn loose. Furthermore, 
weeds killed when very young do not draw out the moisture in the 
soil nor render the available plant food insoluble. The harrow noi 
only destroys Aveeds sprouting in the ground before the corn is 
planted, but causes the germination of other seeds which have been 
dormant because of lack of heat and moisture 




FIELD NOT READY FOR PLANTING. 

The surface has been allowed to dry out too much before the harrowing was 
done. The rounded shape of the clods shows that the jostling of the harrow 
was ineffective in breaking them up because of their dryness. 

Rolling. The smooth iron or wood roller is used to produce an 
even surface and to settle the surface soil upon the sub-soil. Corn 
ground which has been plowed in the fall, or ground of a silty nature 
which is spring plowed, does not need rolling before planting. It is 
usually very compact. But in loose soils of a sandy nature, or porous 



PLAiNTlNG 159 

soils which have just been freshly spring plowed, the roller, if heavy, 
is valuable in je-establishing the capillarity of the surface soil. In 
the hands of one who looks upon the roller as an implement for 
smoothing only, it is often a very unprofitable tool, because, if the 
surface is left without a light harrowing the evaporation of moisture 
soon dries out the soil. 

Corrugated rollers which leave the surface slightly ridged prevent 
rapid evaporation of the soil moisture. 

First. The uneven surface reduces the velocity of the wrind near 
the ground. 

Second. The dust mulch thus formed breaks off the upward dis- 
charge of the capillary tubes. Furthermore, this type of roller also 
grasps and crushes the larger clods instead of simply burying them 
unbroken. The sub-surface packer invented by H. W. Campbell to 
meet the demands of the more arid districts, settles by excessive 
weight the sub-strata of soil, but leaves the surface loose to conserve 
the moisture which is present at greater depths. In districts of con- 
stant winds of high velocity, this point is essential. 

PLANTING WITH CHECK-ROWER. With the growing in- 
terest in the selection and breeding of seed corn, together with the en- 
deavor for higher yields, the farmer demands of the corn planter more 
accuracy of dropping. When tested seed fails to appear and a poor 
stand results, the planter is usually to blame. For many years the round 
hole plate has been almost exclusively used. The opening was large 
enough to hold the total number of kernels for an entire hill. The 
check wire caused the drop, turning the plate to the next opening 
with each click of the machine. The one advantage of this planter 
was the fact that this hole being so large, kernels of varying sizes 
could be accommodated. Little attention has been paid to the grading 
of corn until within the last few years. In seeking to secure accuracy, 
this larger hole was reduced until it admitted but one kernel. More 
holes were made in the plate, which was continuously turned by the 
main axle of the planter. This formed a cumulative drop which, when 
sufficient kernels had been counted out, were checked off by the wire. 
For growers who produce corn of a uniform type and who grade the 
seed closely, the edge drop plate has proved of greater accuracy. How- 
ever, in planting kernels of different lengths the plates must be cali- 
brated closely. 

Every farmer knows the tendency of planters to carry the kernels 



160 



CORN 



before dropping, which results in a zigzag appearance of the corn 
crossways of the field. In purchasing a planter, this factor should 
be looked into. The valves should work quickly. 

The runner turrow-openers which have always been used on corn 
planters, sometimes fail to give satisfaction on sod land, or in fields 
which are crowded with trash. The planter will often ride out, leav- 
ing the corn uncovered. In an efifort to prevent this disc furrow-open- 




CORN PLANTER. 

Showing the long curved runner furrow-openers and concave wheels. 

ers are sometimes attached. The disc also pulverizes the soil in 
which the kernel is to rest. Except under the conditions mentioned 
these attachments are unnecessary. Both single and double-disc fur- 
row-openers tend to make the planter harder to guide. 

On the rougher and more rolling corn lands, the concave planter 
wheel is used because the fields are harrowed immediately after 
planting. This practice does away with two disadvantages, features 
of the concave wheel; the tendency to leave a fnrrow for washing, 
and the smooth surface which dries out badly. The open wheel is 
better for level lands not subject to washing. It has a little more 



TIME OF PLANTING 



161 



draft, but leaves no flat surface to bake in the sun. The double wheel 
tends to cover the hill more surely. 

Improved methods of culture together with the increasing preval- 
ence of weeds have caused the practice of checking corn to grow in 
popularity. Of 200 representative farmers from different parts of 
Iowa, 92 per cent check their corn. The reasons given for so doing 
were the more effective eradication of the weeds, and in some cases in- 
creased yield. 

On ground which has been well prepared and which is not too 
hilly, it is possi])le for one man to plant 12 to 15 acres per day. The 
objections raised to checked corn are a greater tendency to blow 
down in heavy summer winds and the fact that the roots are not 
so equally distributed throughout the soil. There is practically no 
difference in the yield per acre between drilled and checked corn, 
providing- there are the same number of plants per acre. 

Time of Planting. The best yields and most mature corn are pro- 
duced by planting corn early. Years of experience has proved this 
fact conclusively. The length of season in a given locality determines 
the date of planting. In Iowa, corn must be planted 
ab soon as the ground is properly prepared and suffi- 
ciently warm, not colder than 55 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Very little seed is in the ground before May ist, and 
the northern counties are even later. On sod land, 
where the cut worm is quite prevalent, late planting 
must be practised. As better seed corn is used from 
year to year, earlier planting will come more into 
vogue. Corn of strong vitality can be placed in cold 
ground with less risk than that of weak germinating 
power. Soil conditions have as much to do in de- 
termining the date of planting as does the weather. 
For example, farmers on the Missouri loess soil in 
northwestern Iowa, can plant as much as 14 days earlier than farmers 
in the central part of the state in the same latitude, but located on the 
undrained, low soil of the Wisconsin glacial deposit. 

Hunt, in his "Cereals of America," gives the following summary 
of the work of all the Experiment Stations. 

TABLE NO. 30 
TIME OF PLANTING 




ROUND 1 1 o L E- 
DRILLDROP 

PLANTKR PLATE. 

Planter plate show- 
ing the compara- 
tive size and num- 
ber of holes. 



*Iowa General 



IlLnois 

Indiana .... 

Kansas 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma . . . 
South Dakota 
*Minnesota . . 
*Wisconsin . . 



7 

2 

1 

7 

2 

3 

General 
General 



Apr. 25-28 |May 5-15 |June 1 

April 22-26 |May 11-18 iJune 17-22 .... 

May 1-2 May 1-8 |May 28-30 

April 18-20 May 1 JMay 29-30 

May 18-25 IJune 1-8 IJune 15-July 2. 

April 26 |May 14-24 June 4-12 



March 21-28 
May 1 . . 
May 1 . . 
April 28 



March 28 jApril 25 

May 15-25 |June 10 .. 

May 10-22 IJune 1-10 

May 8-20 jjune 1-5 ■ 



•Farmer's estimates. 



162 



CORN 



The effect of early and late planting is well illustrated in the fol- 
lowing tables No. 31 and 32, taken from a report of the Ohio Experi- 
ment Station.* The highest yield of corn was secured with early 
planting, May 4 to 10. (See Table No. 31.) 

TABLE NO. 31 
YIELD FROM EARLY AND LATE PLANTING 
Date of planting and bushels shelled corn per acre 



Year 


April 24-29 


May 4-10 


May 14-17 


May 25-28 


June 2-6 




Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


1908 


30.16 


56.02 


61.68 


50.66 


40.88 


1909 ____ 


100.19 


98.94 


91.08 


81.34 


62.88 


1910 ___- 


42.45 


37.14 


37.27 


27.67 


20.19 


1911 


67.04 


75.96 


73.76 


54.83 


43.95 


1912 


65.87 


64.12 


61.99 


49.38 


44.95 


1913 


77.43 


78.75 


76.64 


65.36 


53.04 


6-yr. Av. _ 


63.85 


69.49 


67.37 


54.87 


44.32 



A moisture determination made at husking time with a Brown- 
Duval tester showed the corn from the early planting to be much bet- 
ter matured. (See Table No. 32.) Throughout the corn belt early 
planting means an increased yield, and better matured corn. This is 
not necessarily true however with extremely early planting. 

TABLE NO. 32 
MOISTURE— EARLY AND LATE PLANTING 
(Date of planting and per cent of moisture in fall.) 



Year 


April 24-29 
Per cent 


May 4-10 
Per cent 


May 14-17 
Per cent 


May 25-28 
Per cent 


June 2-6 
Per cent 


1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 


17.0 
26.5 
27.2 
22.8 
25.6 
23.3 


16.5 
27.4 
28.7 
23.0 
28.8 
26.1 


18.6 
28.1 
27.3 
25.6 
30.0 
26.0 


23.9 
29.9 
30.0 
28.6 
33.4 
29.0 


30.0 
37.8 
33.7 
31.6 


1912 


35.4 


1913 


32.6 


\ 




6-year average _ 


23.73 


25.08 


25.93 


29.13 


33.52 



Depth of Planting. The depth of planting corn is controlled by 
first, the physicd properties of the soil and its fertility. A stiff, sticky 
clay, retentive of moisture and lacking in humus, should be planted 



'Ohio Bulletin No. 282. 



DEPTH OF PLANTING 



163 



shallow. Kernels covered more than two inches in such a soil will, 
vf the surface receives a beating rain, remain dormant a long time 
because of lack of oxygen. The plant food is not in available form 
except near the surface. A loose, sandy soil requires deeper planting 
because of a lower water level. Although the moisture level of sod 
land is usually very low, as a rule it is difficult to plant corn very deep 
in such soil. 

Second. The position of the water level. Farmers of north cen- 
tral Iowa cannot i)lant deeply because the water level is near the sur- 
face. This excess of moisture removes two essentials for germination 
— warmth and oxygen. The western edge of the corn belt is lacking 
in moisture, consequently the planter must be set more deeply. It 
is seldom advisable to plant deeper than 2 1-2 inches. It will be re 
membered that the young plant depends entirely upon being nourished 
from the endosperm of the seed, or the food supply within the kernel, 
until such time as it is able to draw its food directly from the 
soil. Should this kernel of corn be placed four or five inches beneath 
the surface of the ground, it is often found that while the seed will 
germinate, ther'i is not enough plant food to maintain the growth of 
the sprout until it can reach the surface. Naturally, in this case the 
plant dies, while if it had been planted 'shallow, so that the young 
plant could have come to the surface before the plant food in the 
kernel had been exhausted, it would have grown to maturity. 

Third. The time of planting. In the spring the atmosphere warms 
early and by penetrating the seed bed gradually raises its tempera- 
ture. Therefore, in early planting, only the surface soil is warm 
enough to germinate the kernels. The sub-surface strata is cold and 
wet. Later when the surface soil has become warmer, the seed may 
be covered to greater depth. 

TABLE NO. 33 

YIELD OF CORN FROM PLANTINGS OF DIFFERENT DEPTHS 

(Average for three years) 



Depth 



Bushels per acre 



Average 



1 inch 

2 " 


109.7 
88.4 

100.8 
88.0 
73.1 
60.3 


83.0 
83.0 
51.0 
87.0 
81.0 
92.0 


77.8 
72.8 
70.3 
58.4 
62.3 
60.3 


90.2 

81.4 


3 " 


74.0 


4 " 


77.8 


5 " 


72.1 


6 " 


70.9 







The above figures taken from Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, show 
from an average of three years, with corn planted at different depths, 



164 



CORN 




a few bushels in favor of the shallow planting. Of course, Illinois 
conditions are different from those of some of the other states, and 
must be interpreted accordingly. 

The Texas Station recommends about three inches as the proper 
depth for most sods, and three years tests in Iowa show an increased 
yield from the shallower planting, say 1 to 3 inches over the deeper 
planting 4 to 6 inches. 

Distance Bnween the Rows. The distance be- 
tween the rows of corn varies from three feet in the 
north and west to more than six feet in the southeast. 

The factors which decide how far apart the rows 
should be are : 

First, the fertility of the soil. A thin soil, low 
in organic matter and especially lacking in ni- 
trogen, produces very little growth of foliage. The 
roots must feed over a large area ; consequently the 
rows are set further apart. A piece of sod land which 
tends to force the corn along and produce excessive 
tillering, may be planted in rows closer together. 
Extensive tests in Illinois* to determine the proper distance be- 
tween rows resulted in the following conclusions: 

1. On all ordinary Corn Belt land of the northern part of Illinois, 
plant corn hills not more than 36 inches apart and plant at least three 
kernels per hill. 

2. In central Illinois on the common brown silt loam prairie land, 
of a productive capacity greater than 50 bushels per acre, plant corn 
39.6 inches between hills and drop three kernels per hill (with 39.6 
inches between rows there are exactly five rows per rod). 

3. In central Illinois on the common prairie land, of lower pro- 
ductive capacity than 50 bushels per acre, as for instance average Corn 
Belt land, plant the hills 36 inches apart and drop two kernels per hill. 

TABLE NO. 34 
SHOWING YIELD PER ACRE AS AFFECTED BY DISTANCE BETWEEN 

ROWS 



EDGE DROP 
PLANTER PLATE. 
This plate takes into 
consideration the 
thickness of the 
kernel which is 
the most constant 
character. 



State 


.\o. of 

Years 
in Test 


.\o. of 
Kernels 
per Hill 


Diftance between rows, (inches) 




44x44 44x39.6 44x36 


44x33 36x36 33x36 33x33 


*Illinois (Northern) 4 

Illinois (Northern) 4 

Illinois (Central) 1 4 

Illinois (Central) j 4 


2 1 44.1 

3 1 54.1 

2 1 47.7 

3 1 51.6 


47.1 48,7 
55.7 56.7 
50.0 51.9 
51.9 52.3 


50.9 54.2 

57.7 58.9 

52.8 54.5 
51.4 49.1 


54.3 
59.9 
55.0 
49.1 


52.0 
61.0 
54.0 
46.8 



An Ohio test covering a three-year average shows that the number 
of plants per acre being the same, there is a gain of 4 1-2 bushels per 



'Tllinois Bulletin No. 126 



STALKS PER HILL 165 

acre in favor of one plant every 12 inches, as compared with three 
plants every 36 inches. The gain in stover was 659 pounds per acre. 
Ilowever, the question of cultivation and harvesting of the crop is to 
be considered. Corn planted in hills is more easily harvested, and 
gives a better opportunity in cultivating or keeping the weeds in 
check. 

Second. The custom of the locality or even the section of the 
Corn Belt affects thickness of j^lanting. The Georgia Experiment 
Station found that better results could be obtained by having the rows 
four feet apart with one stalk every three feet in each row. The same 
station found that on ground which could produce around 30 bushels 
of corn per acre, the best results could be had with the rows four 
feet apart with ( ne plant every two feet in the row. The Indiana Ex- 
periment Station, in carrying on investigations for a period of eight 
years, secured the best yields with planting in rows three feet eight 
inches apart and one plant every 10 3-4 inches in the row. 

Under Iowa conditions, the majority of growers usually check 
three feet six inches both ways, making 3,556 hills per acre. By such 
a plan, each hill has 1764. square inches of surface. The cultivators 
as usually used on the farm are set for this width, and there is no line 
of weeds left in the center between the rows. On the poorer soils 
of the state a three-foot eight inch planter is used, which plants 3,240 
hills per acre. Sometimes the corn is planted three feet eiglit inches 
one way, and a three foot six inch check wire is used. 

Third. The nature of growth of variety is another factor influenc- 
ing the closeness of planting. Large, rank growing varieties require 
greater distance between the rows, because of over-shading. Low 
growing kinds requiring short seasons may be planted more closely. 

The occasional planting of other crops with corn may make a great- 
er distance between hills and rows desirable. 

Number of Stalks Per Hill. There is more or less difference of 
opinion upon this particular point. In the early years of corn grow- 
ing in the central West, the number of kernels per hill was con- 
trolled by such an adage as "Always plant five kernels, one for the 
blackbird, one for the crow, one for the cut worm and two to grow." 
However, it may be said that the amount of corn that can be pro- 
duced on a giver, area of land is determined by the soil, seed, and 
management, together with the climatic conditions. Naturally, land 
rich in fertility can maintain a greater number of stalks per acre than 
can poorer lami. While in the former case four or five kernels to 
the hill may not be too many, in the latter two kernels to the hill 



166 



CORN 



would be sufficient. Three kernels to the hill is generally considered 
as the standard, and it may be said that there is very little good corn- 
producing land that can not maintain three good stalks to the hill. 

If corn is planted thick on land of poor fertility, the result is 
stover and not ears. On the other hand, two or three kernels are often 
planted to the hill on land so rich in fertility that much greater yields 
would have been secured by planting four and possibly five kernels. 
In the latter case, with two and three kernels a great many suckers 
are produced, sometimes as many as two to three per hill. Had there 
been four or five kernels to the hill in this case, the fertility of the 
ground would have been utilized in producing stalks of corn bearing 
ears, rather than suckers. 

On average good corn land, the yield per acre in shelled corn in- 
creases with the number of stalks per hill up to four or five. After 
this the amount of stover increases and the amount of grain decreases. 
As the number of stalks increases to the hill, the number of good, 
strong seed ears will decrease after two and three stalks to the hill, 
and there will be found more inferior ears and nubbins. 



TABLE NO. 35 
SHOWING RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO YIELD 



State 



Distance 

between 

Hills 



No of 
Experi- 
ments 



Showing Average Yield per acre (bu.) 
Number of Kernels planted per liill 



Iowa (Entire state) 

Iowa (Northern sect) 
Iowa (Central sect.) 
Iowa (Southern sect.) 

*Nebraska 

**Ohio 

•'^**Kentucky 



3 ft. 6 in. 
3 ft. 6 in. 
3 ft. 6 in. 
3 ft. 6 in. 



3 ft. 6 in. 



127 
38 
44 
45 



33.5 


51.5 


59.5 


61.5 


31.5 


48.5 


58.0 


60.0 


35.0 


54.5 


64.5 


69.0 


34.5 


51.5 


57.0 


57.0 


48.3 


67.7 


75.5 


76.7 


31.7 


50.8 


60.8 


64.9 




51.6 


58.1 


60.4 



61.0 
59.0 
69.5 
56.5 
76.3 
63.0 



The foregoing table gives a summary of the tests conducted in 
Various states of the Corn Belt for a period of years. The foregoing 
statements have been well substantiated by these tests. In the most 
favorable seasons and on the more fertile soil, the thicker planting 
has produced the higher yields, but in less favorable years and on 
thinner soil, the lower rate of seeding has given the better yield. Take 
the results from Oklahoma for instance. The year 1910 was an es- 
pecially good corn season. The respective yields from 2, 3 and 4 
stalks per hill were 72, 90.4 and 98.4 bushels per acre. The following 
year, 1911, was very dry. The respective yields were 31.1, 25.8 and 

*Nebrafka Bulletin No. 112 
=^*Ohio Bulletin No. 282. 
***Kentucky Bulletin No. 163. . . 

For Nebraska, Ohio and Kentucky, the results givt-n represent number of plants per hill. Ohio 
yields are figured on basis of shelled corn. 



STALKS PER HILL 167 

22.4 bushels per acre. The amount of corn produced decreased with 
the heavier rate of seeding in the dry year. 

The data from Iowa shows the effect of season, climate and soil 
on rate of seeding. Comparing the three zones of the state, namely, 
northern, central and southern, it is seen that the yield varies with the 
same rates of seeding. In the north, the heavier seeding produced the 
higher yield. With a smaller ear, and lighter stalk more stalks can 
succeed in a hill. Going south however to the larger ears, and heavier 
stalks (and in some cases older soil) the number of stalks per hill must 
be slightly reduced. In the southern part of the state it is generally 
aimed to have from two to three stalks per hill, and in the northern 
part of the state, from three to four. The average for the entire state 
of Iowa shows the best results from three to four kernels planted per 
hill. 

In these tests it should be added too that the yield of stover as a 
rule was heavier with the thicker planting. In Nebraska the yield of 
stover increased over 16 per cent between two and five stalks per 
hill. The Ohio test shows a corresponding increase in yield of stover 
amounting to 100 per cent, however, between the one stalk and 5 stalk 
stand. This was for an average of ten years. 




CORN PLANTER 

Showing disc furrow opener. 



168 



CORN 



RELATION OF THICKNESS OF STAND TO PER CENT OF BARREN STALKS 
It has been found that the thickness of planting affects the per 
cent of barren stalks. In a five year's test in Iowa, the results have 
Ijeen as follows : 

TABLE NO. 36 

**SHOWING PER CENT OF BARREN STALKS AS AFFECTED BY THICKNESS 

OF PLANTING. 

(This table shows the number of barren stalks per 100 plants) 



State 
Iowa 



Number 
of Years 



No. of kernels per hill 
2 3 4 



4.2 



3.4 



5.6 



10.7 



As the rate of seeding increases the per cent of barren stalks rises. 
This has been found to be particularly true in dry years. 

The effect of barren stalks on yield is well shown in the following 
table giving the results of an experiment conducted in Ohio* in 1906. 




SINGLE ROW COMBINED LISTER AND DRILL. 
Used in very dry soils in order to get the corn deep into the 
ground so as to obtain moisture. 

TABLE NO. 37 
SHOWING RELATION OF BARREN STALKS TO YIELD 



Per cent of Barren Stalks 


Yield per acre, bushels 


Per cent of Stand 


1.6 


75.70 


75 


3.5 


74.76 


76 


5.5 


69.25 


74 


7.5 


67.21 


74 


10.8 


65.20 


71 


19.7 


65.9 


74 



From the above table it is seen that as the per cent of barren stalks 
increase the average yield of corn decreases. It should be stated how- 
ever, that planting too thick on a thin soil, or in a dry season, tends 
to increase the per cent of barren stalks. 



*Ohio Bulletin No. 140. 
'*County Demonstration Station Reports, Iowa. 



SUCKERS AND NUBBINS 



169 



RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO AMOUNT 

OF SUCKERS. 

The effect of thickness of planting on tillering or suckering is also 
of importance. A tiller or sucker is simply a lateral branch arising 
from one of the lower nodes or joints of the corn plant. Through 
selection and cultivation this habit of corn has been largely overcome 
in the effort to produce one strong stalk from each kernel planted, 
capable of supporting a productive sized ear. While there is some 
difference in the amount of tillering between different varieties of corn 
this habit is affected more by the thickness of stand, fertility of the 
soil and amount of moisture. See the following table. 

TABLE NO. 38 

SHOWING PER CENT OF SUCKERS AS AFFECTED BY THICKNESS OF 

PLANTING 
(This table shows the number of suckers per 100 plants) 



State 


Number 

of Years 

in test 


1 


No. of kernels 
2 3 


per hill 
4 


S 


*Nebraska 

Iowa 


2 
7 


138 1 
52.8 1 


60 25 
21.2 10.2 


10 
7.1 


3 
6.5 



RELATION OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING TO SIZE AND 
QUALITY OF EARS. 

Another thing to be considered under thickness of planting pre- 
viously mentioned in the quality of corn. The per cent of nubbins and 
worthless ears increases with the thicker planting. 

Aside from a poorer quality of corn from too thick planting it will 
be remembered also that a large per cent of the nubbins would be left 
in the field by the average corn picker, thus reducing the actual yield. 
See the following table. 

TABLE NO. 39 

SHOWING PER CENT OF NUBBINS AND POOR EARS AS AFFECTED BY 
THICKNESS OF PLANTING 



State 


Number 

of Years 

in test 


No. of kernels per hill 
12 3 4 5 


**Iowa 

Ohio 


7 
10 


11.8 17.6 23.1 31.9 
16.1 16.7 21.9 31.1 


41.5 
42.6 



•Nebraska Bulletin No. 112. 
**County Demonstration Reports, Iowa. 



NOTES 

1. The results of the foregoing tests with reference to thickness of 
planting shows that in the northern section of the corn belt where the 
ears are smaller, as well as in other sections of the corn belt where the 
soil is abnormally fortile, the highest yields have been secured by 
planting four kernels per hill. The average stand in the fall was about 
3.3 stalks per hill. 

In the central portion of the corn belt where a little larger eared 
variety can be grown, and where the soil is newer, the highest yields 
came from a little thicker planting, or five kernels per hill. However, 
the average stand from the tests where five kernels were planted was 
only 3.6 stalks per hill in the fall. 

In the southern section, where the largest varieties are grown and 
where the soil is older the best results came from planting about three 
kernels per hill, giving an average stand of 2.5 to 3 stalks per hill. 

2. The largest proportion of good ears as shown by most of the 
tests, come from a two to three stalk stand in the northern and cen- 
tral districts, while in the southern district the best results seemed to 
be obtained from about two kernels per hill, with reference to the 
proportion of good ears. Beyond that rate of planting the per cent 
of good ears rapidly decreased. 

3. In studying the results of these experiments, it should be re- 
membered that there were only about 80 to 85 per cent as many stalks 
left at harvest time as there were kernels planted or stalks left at the 
time of the second cultivation. 

In estimating the number of kernels to be planted per hill, it should 
be remembered that where strong seed is planted under good condi- 
tions, there will ordinarily be a loss of from five to ten per cent in the 
stand. 

4. The study of the results of these experiments would lead to the 
conclusion that for ordinarily good conditions a farmer in the northern 
and central section of the corn belt would do well to plant so as to 
have three good strong stalks in every hill ; that is, where the proper 
variety is used, which will mature under normal conditions. In the 
southern district the results indicate that under ordinary conditions an 
average of about 2.5 good stalks per hill would give better results 
than thicker planting. 

Just what number would give the best result from any one farm 
must be decided by the farmer himself. In general the thickness can 
be increased on rich soil, or with a smaller variety of corn and de- 
creased with thinner soils and larger varieties. 



WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? 171 

5. Notice that the proportion of stalks having suckers decreased 
rapidly and regularly with the increase in thickness of planting. 

6. The average of all the experiments shows that the proportion of 
barren stalks increased with the increase in thickness of planting from 
4.2 per cent where there was only one stalk per hill, to 10.7 per cent 
where there were five stalks. 

7. The proportion of stalks affected by smut was greatest where 
the thinnest planting was practiced. 

8. The proportion of seed ears decreased rapidly and regularly 
with the increase in thickness of planting. 

9. In the summary of all the experiments the proportion of 
nubbins and worthless ears was lowest where there was an average of 
one stalks per hill. The proportion of nubbins and worthless ears 
where the thin planting was practiced was probably due to the fact 
that many of the stalks produced a second small ear and that some 
of the many suckers had small ears on them. 

The increase in the proportion of nubbins and worthless ears 
with the increase in the thickness of planting was greater in the 
southern section than in the central and northern. The increase 
in the proportion of barren stalks was also greater. These results 
show that thick planting decreases the productiveness of the stalks 
more in the southern part of the state than it does in the northern 
section. 

WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? This question is so often 
asked that it is here partially answered. 

On Rich River Valley Soil. It is only during a season of compara- 
tively little rainfall that the farmers on the river lowlands are able to 
grow a crop at all. At least three to four stalks per hill should be 
the standard on such land. (See foot note.) 

Upland Thin Soil. At Institutes and Short Courses one quite 
often hears the remark that as many stalks cannot be grown to the 
hill now as 20 or even 10 years ago. The fact that the virgin fer- 

SOUTHERN IOWA ROUGH LANDS. 
Those are underlaid with hardpan, and in a dry year two stalks per hill would be suffi- 
cient. A lack of plant food and the fact that the corn roots cannot penetrate 
the sub-soil to secure moisture, requires a smaller number of stalks per hill. 

NORTHERN IOWA, LOW, UNDRAINED SOIL. 
The years of shortage in early spring precipitation are a boon to the corn growers of 
(he northern area of the Wisconsin Drift. Three stalks or even more should here 
lie the standard, because the soil is well stocked with potential and available plant 
food. 



172 CORN 

tility of the soil has been drawn upon heavily for a series of years by 
continuous cropping, has begun to make itself evident in diminished 
yields. A year of heavy precipitation is the only time when a farmer 
whose soil is thin can think of growing three stalks per hill with suc- 
cess. 

Growing for Show Purposes. The spirit of professionalism has to 
some extent entered the field of corn exhibiting. Breeders who grow 
samples to win for advertising purposes prefer from two to 2.5 stalks 
per hill, even on strong land. 

This discussion has been taken up with the idea of getting at the 
reason for the various views upon the subject. The standard of three 
kernels per hill has served well up to date, but its practicability is 
going to be questioned in many sections before long. In order to 
continue its use a system of farming must be adopted which will 
ir.-.intain the fertility of the soil. 

Replanting Corn. The stand of corn is frequently found to be poor, 
with a great many one-stalk and missing hills. This is due chiefly to 
poor seed, to a lack of preparation of the seed bed, to insect enemies, 
and to climatic conditions. A missing hill means a decrease in yield. 
Not infrequently a great deal of replanting is carried on, which, it 
may be said, is not very profitable. In the first place, the plants from 
the seed that was replanted will not be found to be so far advanced 
as those about them at the time of the first cultivation. They will not 
shed their pollen at the same time, and they often will not send their 
shoots out until so late that the greater portion of the pollen from the 
other stalks has fallen. This accounts for the nubbin ears which are 
always found to a great extent on replanted corn. When replanting 
is done, it is more desirable to plant with an earlier maturing variety 
of corn. This, of course, cannot be carried out where it is desired 
that the corn be kept pure, and in this case it could be done with 
profit only when there is from 10 to 20 per cent of the hills miss- 
ing. By replanting an earlier variety than was formerly planted, the 
silks and tassels will come out more nearly the time the rest of the 
plants of the field send forth their shoots. When the missing hills 
are less than 10 per cent, it is not deemed advisable to replant, and 
should the misses be more than 20 per cent the best results will be 
secured if the entire field is replanted. 

DRILLING CORN. Sod land is frequently put into corn in this 
manner. On very fertile soil which contains sufficient moisture, the 
hills may be 9 inches apart. Twelve inches is more desirable, and even 



LISTING CORN 173 

a distance of 14 or 16 inches produce heavy yields. Suckers are pro- 
duced quite abundantly on sod land. Thicker drilling will have a ten- 
dency to eliminate this evil. 

At the Illinois Station, corn checked three feet eight inches apart 
and plowed but one way, produced 71.7 bushels per acre, compared 
with 60.8 bushels where the field was drilled in rows three feet eight 
inches apart, with the stalks 11 inches apart in the row. This difTer- 
ence is accounted for by the fact that although the checked piece was 
cultivated but one way, it was much freer from weeds. 

The number of stalks per acre in a field of corn drilled in rows 
three feet six inches, with stalks ten inches apart in the row, will be 
14,934. If 14 inches in the row, 10,667. In figuring the per cent stand 
in drilled corn, step off a distance equal to 100 hills 10 or 14 inches 
apart, or any other number of inches, depending upon thickness of 
drilling. If the kernels were drilled 10 inches apart, the 100 hills 
would be 1,000 inches, or 83 1-3 feet. Count the stalks in this meas 
ured length. If there prove to be but 80 stalks, then the percentage of 
stand is 80. 

LISTING CORN. The lister is not a familiar implement to the 
farmer of central Iowa and Illinois, The western corn states. Kansas 
and Nebraska, and parts of Iowa and Missouri, use the lister almost to 
the exclusion of the planter. The lister was introduced into Kansa.s 
in 1882. In 1902 it was estimated that three-fifths of the area in corn 
in Kansas was listed. In these sections the soil is so loose as to allow 
the water level to settle very low. The winds of summer carry oflf 
much of the moisture and the storms of August and September blow 
down the checked or surface planted corn. Because of washing, the 
lister is not adapted to hilly land. On the low, tiled fields of the 
central states listing has proved a failure. Tests at the Illinois Sta- 
tion indicate lower yields and later maturity in listed than in checked 
corn. 

After many trials on plots at the Experiment Station of Kansas:, 
it was found that listing gave an average increase of 3.57 bushels, it 
4.16 per cent per acre over surface planted corn. In 1888, during a 
dry season, an increase of 15 per cent was noted. 

The following tables* are taken from the records of J. W. Robin- 
son, of Towanda, Kansas. They cover a period of 22 years and take 
into account a crop of from 1,000 to 2,000 acres annually. In com- 
paring the cost of handling an acre of clean ground by the two meth- 



* Address by Theo. W. Morse, before tlie Thirty-first Annual Meeting of tlic Board of Agricul- 
ture of Kansas. 



174 CORN 

ods, listing vs. check-rowed, the figures show 75 cents in favor of the 

former. 

LISTED. 

Listing $ .35 

Twice harrowing 20 

Once with "Go-Devil" 15 

Three cultivations 75 

Cutting weeds 10 



Total $1.55 

CHECK-ROWING. 

Plowing and harrowing $1.10 

Check-rowing 25 

Harrowing once 10 

Three cultivations 75 

Cutting weeds 10 



Total $2.30 

Preparing the Ground. As listing is not done until the time 
comes for the corn to be in the ground, the land usually lies idle until 
the first of May. Therefore, some kind of surface treatment must be 
given the soil. Discing early in the spring loosens the surface layer 
and tends to conserve the moisture. If weeds come on rapidly and 
grow rank another vigorous discing may be applied. Furthermore, 
the disc levels the last year's corn rows and splits the stubs so they 
are less bother in cultivating. Where listing is to follow small grain, 
discing the stubble in the fall conserves the moisture and prevents 
the weeds from seeding. 

The partial failures of listed corn may often be traced to the 
wasteful loss of moisture in the early part of the season, because of 
allowing the surface soil to bake and grow up to grass. 

The Use of the Lister. The lister is simply a double mold-board 
plow. By arrangement of the whifiletree the distance between the 
rows is the same as in checked corn, although in the southwest the 
rows are often but 40 inches apart. The weed seeds and foul 
earth are thrown onto the ridges aw^ay from the rows of sprouting 
corn. Hence, the corn has a chance to start in a clean furrow. Many 
farmers recognize this when they find the corn more difficult to keep 
clean in a year when their lister failed to scour. 

The listers which were first invented had an incomplete turn of 
the mold-board which left an edge of the surface of the ground 
sticking out instead of forming a rounded ridge of fresh earth which 
was less pregnant with weed seeds. Even with the best listers, ground 



USE OF LISTER 175 

which has not been previously disced and loosened, but rolls up in 
lumps, will also do the same thing. 

On many large areas a combined riding lister is used; that is, a 
drill attachment at the rear of the lister drops the corn and two small 
shovels or discs cover the kernels. For doing very uniform work, 
through all kinds of soils, this lister is the best implement, especially 
on level land. A walking lister may also have this combined attach- 
ment. Often the lister is drawn alone and the drilling is done with 
a one-horse drill, or a two-row planter is used. A planter does not 
follow the listed furrows uniformly unless they have been turned with 
a two-row lister. The kernels are often dropped on the edge of the 
furrow, which gives the young plants insufficient root hold, besides 
making them hard to cultivate. 

Checking can be efficiently done in listed furrows, but the corn is- 
usually not large enough to cultivate crosswise at the second plow- 
ing. Corn may be listed in ground already prepared for surface check 
ing, but in such a case the soil is usually so loose that the lister will 
not scour satisfactorily. Stubble land is often listed with good re- 
sults. In listing ground which has been in corn the previous year, 
either the old row may be listed out or the furrow may be made 
between the rows. Double listing — listing once early and then relist- 
ing the ridge later in the season — is a more efifective way of loosen 
ing up the soil. 

The furrow-opener attachment is rapidly gaining recognition, espe- 
cially in those districts where the corn must be planted deep in order 
to better resist the drouth and wind. In many localities it is gradu- 
ally replacing the lister. The ground is plowed and the seed bed pat 
in proper condition by use of the disc and the harrow. An ordinary 
corn planter is then used with the furrow opener attachment. The 
corn is thus planted at a sufficient depth and may be either drilled or 
checked. This permits of a much more thorough preparation of the 
seed bed, giving the corn plant the advantage of an earlier start. With 
the use of the furrow opener attachment, the Kansas Experiment Sta 
tion has been receiving very satisfactory results. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Corn, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 44. 
Corn, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 61. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. jj. 



176 CORN 

Experiments on Corn, 

West Virginia Bulletin No. 29. 
Experiments with Corn and Oats, 

Indiana Bulletin No. 55. 

Corn Culture in North Carolina, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 171. 

Experiments with Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No, 64. 

Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 17. 
Results Obtained from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field 
Roots and Potatoes, 

Ottawa Bulletins Nos. 29, 32, 34, 36, 39, 44. 
Experiments with Corn. 

Kansas Bulletin No. 45. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 13. 
Experiments with Wheat, Corn and Potatoes, 

Maryland Bulletin No. 62. 
Corn, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 7. 
Experiments with Oats and Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. 14. 
Methods of Corn Culture, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 82. 
Planting and Replanting Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 92. 
Effects of Certain Methods of Treatment upon Corn Crop, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 54. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 25. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 4. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 20. • 
Number of Kernels Per Hill, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 126, 127. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Circular No. 66. 
Influence of Early and Late Spring Plowing. 

Ohio Bulletin No. 1. 
Corn Culture, 

North Dakota Bulletin No. 51. 



COLLATERAL READING 177 

Corn Culture, 

Georg^ia Bulletin No. 62. 
Corn Culture, 

Geor<^ia Bulletin No. 34 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 51. 
Corn, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 3. 
Corn Culture in Sotitli, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 81. 
Co-operative Field Tests Duriui:; 18SX, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 65. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 46. 
Corn Culture. 

Georgia Bulletin No. 58. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 55. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 30. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 41. 
Corn Growing, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 199. 
Corn, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 122. 
Experiments with Corn, 

Ohio Circular No. 53. 

Corn, Field Tests with, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 118. 
Corn Experiments, 

Maryland Bulletin No. 46. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 56. 
Corn, Field Experiments with, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 55. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 31. 
Experiments with Corn. 

North Dakota Bulletin Nn 76. 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 112. 

Ohio Bulletin No. 140. 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 163. 

Tennessee Bulletin No. 2. 

Ohio Bulletin No. 282. 

IlHnois Bulletin No. 126. 

County rjemonstration Station Reports, Towa. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP 

1. CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN. 

A. Object of Tillage. 

B. Harrowing Corn. 

C. Depth of Cultivation. 

D. Frequency of Cultivation. 

E. Kinds of Cultivators. 

2. CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. 



CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN 

Thorough cultivation when the corn is young means lesb care 
thereafter. By destroying the first sprouting weed seeds, the corn is 
given a better chance and less moisture is lost. Furthermore, it is 
very essential that the corn plant never gets a setback. That is, there 
should be no perceptible cessation of growth between the time the 




TONGUELESS FOUR-SHOVEL CULTIVATOR 
Used in compact soils, and on rough lands. 

plant ceases to feed upon the endosperm and the time it begins to 
draw its plant food from the soil. The maintenance of a healthy, 
dark green color and a thick, though often short stem, indicates vigor 
in a growing corn plant. 



HARROWING CORN 179 

The Objects of Tillage. The chief objects of tillage are: (i) To 
stir and loosen the entire soil to a sufficient depth for the roots of the 
plants to freely extend themselves. 

(2) To pulverize the soil and mix thoroughly its constituent 
parts. 

(3) To develop various degrees of openness of structure and uni- 
formity of soil conditions suitable to the planting of seeds and the 
setting of plants. 

(4) To place beneath the surface manure, stubble, stalks and 
other organic matter, where it will not be in the way, and where it 
may be converted rapidly into humus, 

(5) To destroy or prevent the growth of weeds. 

(6) To start other weed seeds which have been dormant in the 
soil. 

(7) To modify the movements of soil moisture and soil air. 

(8) To assist in controlling soil temperature. 

Harrowing Corn. The reasons for using a harrow or weeder before 
the first cultivation of corn are to kill newly germinated weed seeds; 
to start other weed seeds by warming the soil and admitting the air; 
lO prevent the formation 01 a crust; to produce a loose surface mulch; 
cind to get over a large area in a short time. 

When and how often to harrow depends upon : first, the physical 
condition of the soil and seedbed. 

A soil which has been plowed early and is naturally of a close 
grained structure, and which cements together because of beating 
rains, will bear a harrow without having its surface loosened at all. 
The harrow teeth will not move enough dirt to cover the weeds. Soil 
of a loose, sandy formation, the surface of which seems to break open 
rather than bake, can be harrowed to good advantage. The roots of 
the small grass around the hills of corn are soon freed so that the 
sun dries them out. A seed bed covered with clods or trash cannot 
be properly harrowed because the teeth either roll the clods on the 
hills or dig up lumps which tear up young plants. Old root stubs 
which have not been well buried in plowing, often catch in the harrow 
teeth and drag hills of corn out with them. The surface of sod corn 
land cannot be harrowed because of the loose lying pieces of turf. 
As a rule, however, corn on new land is comparatively free from 
grass the first year. 

In the second place, when harrowing, the amount of rainfall and 
sunshine during the germination and early growing period must be 
considered. 



180 



CORN 



During a wet time, when the sun shines but little, a harrow culti- 
vates young grass rather than kills it. Sunlight is required to dry 
out the roots which are turned up to the air. Harrowing wet ground 
puddles the surface, instead of producing a dust mulch. On the other 
hand, a dry soil requires deeper tillage than that secured by the har- 
row. Care should be taken to note that the plants are not turgid and 
full of moisture when harrowed, because they snap off easily when in 
such condition. In the sunshine they usually bend easily and allow 
the harrow to pass over them without injury. 




DISC CULTIVATOR 
Used especially in damp, weedy ground. 



The third consideration is the size of the corn. Wallaces' Farmer 
advocates the following as the ideal method of planting: Thoroughly 
prepare the seed bed as has been previously described. Plant the corn 
and instead of following the planter with a harrow and harrowing it 
lightly crosswise, cultivate each row with the ordinary shovel plow. 
Set the shovels to throw considerable dirt, but not enough to ridge 
the rows very much. If the land is level, wait two or three days, 
then harrow crossways of the field. Two things are accomplished 
by this practice. Practically all of the corn has been cultivated once. 
The ground has been loosened to considerable depth. The harrow 
has pulverized the surface and turned to the sun many sprouting weed 
seeds. The whole process is more rapid and less tedious than care- 
fully plowing weedy corn the first time. On hilly jand, subject to 



WEEDING 



181 



washing, harrowing will necessarily follow immediately after culti- 
vating the newly planted field. 

When the plants are three inches in height they can be safely 
harrowed. Farmers on a loamy soil report harrowing corn six and 
eight inches high without apparent damage. 

The kind of harrow is important. The teeth of the harrow should 
be set to slant slightly backwards. Rigid teeth tear too deeply. When 
raised above the surface, the harrow frame does not drag trash. A 
light harrow is preferable to the heavier type. 




WEEDER. 
This is used when the weeds are small and the ground is in good condition. 



The weeder, though little used in the corn belt, destroys fine grass 
in corn where the ground is mellow and the surface free from trash. 
Much younger corn can be cultivated with a weeder than with the 
harrow or cultivator. As the weeder is of light weight, a boy with 
two horses can weed a large area in a short time. 

(7) 



182 CORN 

Depth of Cultivation. Corn should be cultivated, not plowed. The 
depth of cultivating corn depends first upon the size of the corn. Corn 
which is being cultivated for the first time has not long since begun 
feeding on the soil. When germinating and pushing to the surface, 
the sprout drew the nourishment from the endosperm of the kernel. 
Therefore, the roots have not spread very far horizontally or ver- 
tically. At this time the rows should be cultivated deeply and closely 
because it can be done without injuring the roots. There is no ques- 
tion but that a few may be disturbed and even cut off, but as the 
plant is young and the ground is moist, growth is not seriously 
checked. Deep cultivation should not be practiced after the first time 
over. 

If the cultivator is kept from the hill and set to throw dirt to 
cover the weeds, rather than to uproot them, there is left in the row 
a compact ridge which is unfit for the corn roots to penetrate. Fur- 
thermore, the ridge is so high that by the time of the second cultivat- 
ing, the weeds then growing cannot be properly covered. When a 
cultivator shovel passes close to a hill of corn, the loosened soil be- 
comes warmer because of the admitting of the air. Early in the spring, 
the roots of corn wait especially for the soil to rise in temperature 
before pushing out. This loosened soil, if it dries out, will tend also 
to direct root growth downward, because of more moisture at lower 
depths. This is particularly valuable, because a shallow rooted corn 
plant cannot so well withstand the drying winds and lowering water 
level of July and August. 

Deep cultivation cannot be done at any other time than the first 
time over. According to investigations in North Dakota, the roots 
of rows of corn three feet apart were interlaced at the end of 30 days 
after planting. The bulk of the roots were within the first eight 
inches of soil. Six inches from the hill the main roots were within 
lYz to three inches of the surface. 

The depth of cultivation depends also upon the texture and forma- 
tion of the soil. Some types of soil contain a large amount of humus 
and are of a loose structure. These may be cutivated the first time with 
a surface cultivator. The corn soils of central Iowa and central Illi- 
nois require but one deep loosening, and produce the highest yields 
when tilled thereafter with surface tools. There are, however, soils 
of a compact, less friable nature; for example, the loess soils of soutn- 
ern Iowa and Illinois, which require deeper cultivation. If a beatmg 
rain follows the first cultivation, this soil will become so compact that 
the ordinary surface cultivator simply scrapes the ground, leaving 



DEPTH OF CULTIVATION 183 

an almost impervious sub-surface strata. As more humus is intro- 
duced into these soils, the surface cultivator may come into more 
practical usefulness for laying by corn. 

From the results of an experiment conducted in Indiana for five 
years, the average yield of corn was 42.3 bushels per acre for the shal- 
low cultivation, (1 to 3 inches) and 37.9 bushels where cultivated four 
inches deep. 

This experiment extended over a period of eight years with the 
one, two and three-inch cultivations, and five years with the four- 
inch cultivation. It will be seen that there was a decrease in the yield 
when the cultivation exceeded the depth of three inches. This e.\i)er- 
iment has been corrol^oratcd by the Iowa Experiment Station and in 
some parts of this state Ijy farmers who have paid special attention 
to this investigation. 

A similar experiment was conducted at the Ohio Station* and the 
results of a ten-year test showed an average yield of 56.4 bushels per 
acre and 2661 pounds of stover from deep cultivation, as compared 
with 60.4 bushels of grain and 2874 pounds of stover per acre from 
the shallow cultivation. The double shovel was used in the deep cul- 
tivation, and the spring tooth cultivator in the shallow cultivation. 




SURFACE CULTIVATOR 
These shovels are made to pulverize the surface rather than stir to any considerable depth 
•Ohio I^uUetin No. 282. 



184 CORN 

According to Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, the average of three plots 
for three years, 1888, 1889, 1890, at that Station, was 81.8 bushels per 
acre, when cultivated shallow. Three other plots cultivated deeply 
for the same time averaged 74.1, or an increase of y.y bushels in favor 
of shallow cultivation. 

Frequency of Cultivation. The number of cultivations which a 
field of corn should receive during a season depends primarily upon 
the conditions of climate and soil. The growth of both corn and 
weeds is governed by the amount of rainfall and sunshine. Often in 
the fore part of the growing season, rainy weather will keep the teams 
out of the field until the grass has almost choked the corn. Clear days 
follow which push the corn forward so rapidly that not more than 
two cultivations are given to the field. A cold summer may hold 
the corn back so much that it is laid by after four cultivations and is 
yet under size. 

The key to the successful solution of this proposition is keen 
observation. There can be no set rule as to the number of times, 
other than that the corn should be kept free from weeds and grass, 
and that the surface of the ground should have the best possible mulch 
to conserve the moisture. Many fields suffer greatly from a lack of 
cultivation, either because a heavy carpet of weeds has been permitted 
to grow up, or because a great deal of moisture has been lost. There 
are, however, instances where cultivation is so frequent as to be detri- 
mental. For example, in dry seasons when the rainfall is slight, there 
is nothing gained by continually cultivating the fields that already 
have a good dust mulch on their surface. There is such a thing pos- 
sible as the surface becoming somewhat compact by lying for some 
time without being stirred, even though there is not much rainfall, but 
to keep continually cultivating corn in a dry season when there is 
a dust mulch already established, is only a means of stirring up the 
surface soil and permitting the air to penetrate deeper; thus drying it 
out to a greater extent than would have been the case had there been 
no cultivating at this time. 

There is no question but that many crops are cut short because of 
a lack of cultivation when the corn becomes too tall for the ordinary 
two-horse cultivator. The corn draws hardest upon the soil at the 
time when it is putting forth its silk and tassels and maturing the ear. 
When there is a tendency for the season to be dry, with an occasional 
shower, it would be very profitable to run a single-horse cultivator 
between the rows to keep the dust mulch established after the corn 
has become too high to use the two-horse cultivator. 



FREQUENCY OF CULTIVATION 



185 



At the Kansas Agricultural College, experiments were carried on 
to determine the advisability of frequent cultivation with the following 
results: (Note the variation in yield in different seasons, which was 
probably due to climatic conditions. No profitable returns resulted 
from excessive cultivation.) 

TABLE NO. 40 
FREQUENCY OF CULTIVATION 



Times Cultivated During 
Season 



Once 

Twice 

Three times 
Four times _. 
Five times _. 
Six times __- 



Rate of Yield per Acre in 
Bushels 



1891 



1895 



1896 



68.03 



76.06 



70.08 



23.42 
30.88 
26.45 

20.77 
20.51 
17.08 



37.62 
44.42 
43.77 
48.94 
48.27 
49.34 




TWO-ROW RIDING CULTIVATOR 
Besides having four shovels to loosen up the soil, the front 
shanks are equipped with a short knife blade which cuts off 
the weeds next to the hill. 

After investigating the frequency of cultivating corn for the years 
i888, 1889, 1890, the Illinois Experiment Station concluded that no 
appreciable benefit was derived from frequent cultivation nor from 
cultivating after the ordinary season for cultivating was past. The 
soil on which this trial was made was a black, friable loam, (Bulletin 
No. 13, Illinois.) 

Kinds of Cultivators. This is governed largely by the kind of soil, 
character of the land, and very often by the help which may be secured. 



186 



CORN 




CULTIVATING CHECKED CORN THE FIRST TIME 

Note that considerable dirt is being stirred and the shovels run close to the corn. 

The shields keep the large pieces from falling on the hills. 



KINDS OF CULTIVATOR SHOVELS 187 

In some of the more southwestern corn producing states, the double- 
row cultivators are frequently used and are found to be very prac- 
ticable, being equipped with four gangs of four shovels each, and 
drawn by three horses. As one of these completes the cultivation of 
two rows each time it crosses the field, one man can cultivate about 
15 acres a day. In many sections it is often difficult to obtain labor- 
ers when they are needed. With one of these two-row cultivators one 
man can practically do the work of two with single-row culti- 
vators. The quality of the work may sufifer some, however. Not 
withstanding this, their use is likely to increase, especially in the com 
paratively level sections that are free from stumps and rocks. Most 
forms of these two-row cultivators are mounted on two wheels like 
two-horse, single-row cultivators. Very stumpy land or tall corn may 
necessitate the use of a one-horse cultivator. 

The best kind of shovel with which to equip either single or double 
cultivators must be determined by the character of the soils, size 
of the corn, and size and nature of the growth of the weeds to be 
destroyed. Without exception, any shovel found to do good work 
on a one-horse cultivator can be attached to a double or two-row 
cultivator. For light, sandy land, sweeps are in favor. They are of 
various width, from six to 30 inches. The sweeps scrape along the 
soil at a depth of two inches, cutting ofif the weeds and allowing the 
surface soil to pass over them and fall level and flat behind the culli 
vator. The same result is accomplished with the double cultivator 
in New England where it is known as a horse-hoe or hoeing machine. 
This implement was originally made for tobacco cultivation, the long, 
horizontal blades or shears which extend toward the row from the 
uprights which fasten to the beam, serve well to reach under the 
tobacco plant and cut weeds and loosen the soil without breaking 
the leaves. 

In general the four-shovel cultivator goes too deep for cultivating 
corn after the first time over. This is especially true if the weeds 
were destroyed with the first cultivation. The four shovel cultivator 
in fact plows the corn instead of cultivating it. Such treatment is 
often necessary to destroy the weeds, after which shallow cultivation 
should be practiced. This may be done by using small shovels, four 
to six on a side, or with the surface cultivator. 

All forms of shovels should be so adjusted that the loosened soil 
will make a fine and even covering for the firmer soil beneath. Ridges 
left by the shovels make a larger surface for evaporation, and allow 



188 



CORN 




CULTIVATING LISTED CORN 189 

a deeper entrance of drying atmosphere into the soil. Some surface 
cultivators bear attachments for smoothing the ground as the machine 
passes along. 

CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. It is an idea with many 
farmers of the districts where corn is checked entirely, that listing is a 
slack method of corn culture. In the past listing has been practiced 
most generally by farmers who grow large areas. Hence the methods 
of cultivation adopted have been those which accomplished most in 
the least time. This was often carried io excess, even to the detri- 
ment of the crop. Some growers harrow the ridges before the corn 
comes up, especially if the weeds start early. Others wait until the 
corn is two or three inches high and then harrow. By both of these 
systems, clods and corn stubs (if the old row has been listed out) are 
rolled into the furrow. In the former case these obstructions hold 
the sprout beneath the surface, and in the latter bury the little plant. 
In either case the weed seeds which were thrown out on the ridges 
away from the corn, are now returned to the furrow before the corn 
has had time to get ahead of their growth. Rolling with a heavy roller 
has some advantages in that instead of hurling the clods into the 
furrow, it simply pushes them down, crushing a great many. The 
idea of these last two methods is to level the ridge for the horses. 




SINGLE ROW DISC CULTIVATOR WITH SLED AND KNIVES 

FOR LISTED CORN. 
This type of cultivator with varying attachments is commonly known 
as the "Go-Devil." 



190 



CORN 



The "go-devil," as it is usually called in listed corn districts, has 
two heavy two-inch runners about eight inches high and 40 inches 
long which fit into the furrow. To the rear of these is a set of discs, 
two or three on each side, which may be set by a small lever placed 
near the seat. These discs throw dirt out of the furrow, or may 
simply loosen it. Two long fenders keep the corn from being cov- 
ered. Such an implement, when set correctly, does very efficient 
work. There are a great many types of listed corn cultivators. Some 
have discs, some long knives. Two-row cultivators for listed corn are 
put up after these plans also. Some of these implements may also be 
used for the second time over the corn. Otherwise, the corn is often 
harrowed in the course of three or four days. This is a very efficient 
method because the first cultivation has loosened the soil. 




TWO ROW LISTED CORN CULTIVATOR. 



In certain sections the land is so very rolling that the two-row 
riding cultivators or one-row riding cultivators are too heavy. The 
four or six-shovel walking cultivator is used, either with very long 
shields or with a wooden or sheet iron trough dragging in the furrow. 
The second time over, the trough is replaced by smaller shields. 

With listed corn machinery, as with all other corn implements, 
manufacturers have endeavored to reach perfection. The work of 
the two-row cultivators in northern Missouri bespeaks efficiency in 
ease of operation and in area covered for a given time. 



CULTIVATING LISTED CORN 



191 



In cultivating listed corn, especially where the field was only single- 
listed, a larger amount of dirt is moved and the shovels are set deeper 
in the ground. Deep cultivation when the corn is ready to lay by is 
less detrimental to listed corn, because the root system is much further 
down than in case of planted corn. Listed corn is slow in starting in 
the spring because its seed bed is lower down and not so warm. Many 
farmers become discouraged with the field of listed corn, because it 
looks yellow and spindling. But just as soon as it has been cultivated 
once, and especially after the second cultivation, the stalks begin to 
grow rapidly. The warm, dry weather of late summer pushes liste.l 
corn so much faster because its roots are drawing from a lower water 
table. This supply is most needed just when the ears are forming. 




CHAPTER IX. 



THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN 



1. HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR. 

A. Stage of Maturity. 

B. Time of Harvesting. 

C. Methods of Harvesting. 

D. Cost of Harvesting. 

E. Methods of Unloading. 

2. STORING CORN. 

A. Principles Involved. 

B. Cribs. 

C. Shrinkage of Corn. 

HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR.— Stage of Maturity. It 

is a generally accepted theory that in plants of the grass family the 
percentage of fat increases and that of protein remains constant or 
decreases slightly with the advancement of maturity. Tests made at 
the Iowa State College show that the kernels increased in the per- 
centage of fat from 2.18 per cent on September 14th to 4.93 per cent 
on November 2d. *The protein content decreased from 10.75 to 10.40 
per cent between the same dates. Mature corn has a much larger 
percentage of carbohydrates stored in the kernel. The drying of the 
lower leaves and the turning of the husks from green to whitish in 
color, indicate the ripening of the ears. But the pith inside of the 
stalk holds its moisture a long time and keeps feeding the kernels. 
The kernels should be of a horny texture and husks well dried before 
being gathered. 

'Bachelor's Thesis, Morris and Cohagen, 1907 



TIME AID METHOD OF HARVESTING 



193 



Time of Harvesting. The season has much to do in pro- 
longing the ripening period. A damp, cold autumn keeps the foliage 
green and sappy. Early drought hastens the curing of the stalk and 
leaves, and matures the ears. The effect of frosts is marked when 
the freezing is severe. Early varieties which are intended for immed- 
iate feeding may be husked before October ist in most sections of 
the corn belt. 

Immature, sappy corn will mold because of the large amount of 
moisture present. Corn husked in damp weather requires more aera- 
tion than when the atmosphere is dry and windy. To insure safe 
storage, October 20th to 25th is early enough. 




-^^ -.A^ 















THE COMMON METHOD OF HUSKING CORN FROM THE FIELD. 
One man with team and wagon gathers two rows each trip through the field. 

Method of Harvesting. Husking by hand is the chief means of 
gathering the bulk of the corn crop. One man, with wagon and team, 
will average 70 bushels per day in corn yielding 50 bushels per acre. 
Larger averages are made by many farmers in high-yielding fields. 
When no snow is on the ground and the husker is careful, very few 
ears are left in the field. Corn that has blown down badly can be 
gathered only by this method. 

From time to time different patented machines have been manu- 
factured for the purpose of harvesting corn in the ear. Most of them 
have proved very impracticable and wasteful. Where corn stands 
up well and the rows are of sufficient length to justify the use, the 
present cornhusker is a decided success. Besides the man to operate 



194 



CORN 



the machine and to drive the horses, (from four to six in number) 
two men and teams are required to haul the corn to the crib. There 
are some ears left, but where cattle and hogs are turned into the 
field during the winter and spring, little waste occurs. 




CORN PICKER AND HUSKER. 
Used ill larger fields, and drawn by six horses. 

Cost of Harvesting. Not many years ago, corn growers of the 
central states hired men to husk their corn at two cents per bushel. 
Since then, the price has steadily raised until at the present time the 
prevailing price ranges from four to five cents, some even paying 
more. 

Owners of corn-gathering machinery report the cost per bushel 
between three to five cents. This depends upon the yield of the 
corn per acre as only from eight to ten acres can be picked daily. 
The use of a picker is not so much of a money saver as a time saver. 
Men can be hired to run a wagon by the side of the loader, who would 
be of little use as buskers themselves. 

Methods of Unloading. The scoop shovel delivers most of the 
corn crop into cribs. To aid the shoveler, cribs are built with a 
series of doors in order that all of the corn need not be lifted so 
high. In some cases, where a double crib is used, an elevated drive- 
way does away with considerable hard manual labor. 

Where a corn grower has any considerable acreage to gather and 
Store, the automatic unloaders are now almost indispensable. The 



STORING CORN 



195 



power used is a gasoline engine, or more commonly the team off the 
husking wagon. After the wagon end gate is removed and the corn 
begins to fall into the hopper behind, the front end of the wagon 
gradually rises at the same time the corn is being elevated into the 
crib. A single crib may be filled from the side by moving several 
times. An overhead carrier is usually hung in the gable of a double 
crib, and chutes are arranged at intervals to transfer the corn to the 
cribs on each side. The time required depends upon the size of the 
load, the power at hand, and the pitch of the carrier. Forty to fifty 
bushels can l)e unloaded in four to five minutes. The fact that the 




CORN PICKER AT WORK. 
Used in large fields where little turning is necessary. 



husker does not have to shovel when arriving at the crib allows time 
to gather more corn. Ten bushels extra on an average can be so 
picked. 

STORING CORN. — Principles Involved. The principles of stor 
ing corn are : 

(1) The admittance of as much air as possible from the out- 
side to come in contact with the corn. 

(2) The escape of the heated air in the crib rapidly and 
without interruption. 

(3) The exclusion of moisture from the crib. 



196 



CORN 



Cribs. In the western states, where lumber is high in price and 
the elevators not within immediate reach, much corn is piled on the 
ground. As soon as the husking season is over, it is shelled and 
hauled to the elevators. Stave fencing has become so cheap and yet 
serviceable, that round cribs have been made from it which hold from 
500 to 1,000 bushels. Two heavy posts are usually set in the ground 
about four feet apart. The fencing is then fastened to one post ex- 
tended in a convenient circle, with a diameter of 12 to 20 feet and 
then securely stapled to the other post. A short piece as a sort of 
gate is left between the posts. This is easily opened at the time of 
shelling. The frozen ground, if cleared off well before the corn is 
thrown in, makes a comparatively smooth surface upon which to 
shovel. Of late, woven wire fencing is most commonly used for tem- 
porary cribbing of corn. 



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^ 




HORIZONTAL AND SLANTING BOARDS ON CORN CRIB. 



In the east central states in the timbered sections, the familiar 
rail crib is no longer so often seen. The profits accruing from large 
fields all over the corn belt both east and west, have enabled the corn 
grower to build substantial structures in which to store his product. 
Then, too, as the farmer feeds his own crop very largely, he must be 
in position to keep it in good condition. Even the renter has capital 
enough to be able to hold back for a rising market. 

Well ventilated frame structures built on foundations of solid 
masonry and painted to prevent rotting have proved themselves to 
be of value. Different methods have been adopted to facilitate the 
circulation of air through the newly husked corn. Shafts at intervals 
through the center of the crib accomplish the required result. Tight 
boarding on the sides will never do. But for the best preservation 
of the corn, the floor should be far enough from the ground to allow 
free circulation of air. If the siding be put on vertically, or at an 



SHRINKAGE OF CORN 197 

angle, there is less rotting of the studding and the rain water is 
carried off directly instead of being allowed to run down inside on 
the corn. The crib should not be over eight feet wide for proper 
ventilation. 

Hollow Tile Corn Crib. A crib which has been growini^ in favor 
recently is the hollow tile structure. Special tile is being manu- 
factured, which, when laid by the mason, has the hollow channel ex- 
tending downward to the outside of the crib so as to prevent rain or 
snow getting into the crib. The objection to the cement iluor is fast 
disappearing, and its decided advantage in keeping out rats and mice 
is being recognized. The hollow tile crib as a rule is built circular, 
with an open core running up through the center. It represents a 
permanent structure at a reasonable cost. 

SHRINKAGE OF CORN. Because of the varying amount of 
moisture contained in corn at storing time, definite figures of the per- 
cent of shrinkage are not always reliable. The state of maturity and the 
condition of the weather at the time of gathering determine to a large 
extent, the water content. 

Tests at Illinois. ** In tests at the Illinois Station with corn stored 
from November ii, 1905 to November 3, 1906, the total shrinkage was 
12.9 per cent. Variations of from 9.0 to 20.7 per cent were found in 
trials for two years. 

Tests at the Iowa Station. ***According to tests at the Iowa State 
College, kernels of corn harvested September 14th, contained 41.78 
per cent of water, while those gathered November 2d showed 17.83 
per cent of moisture. These figures show the large amount of water 
stored in a crib of newly husked corn. In another test, corn gathered 
September 20, 1904, shrank 53.8 per cent by February i, 1905, while 
ears gathered November 7th lost but 21.4 per cent in weight at the 
same tim.e. 

A small crib holding about one hundred bushels was built on a 
truck wagon. This was filled with ear corn during the husking sea- 
son and careful weights taken at the dates indicated. The following 
table shows the results obtained : 



**Bulletin No. 50, Illinois. 
** 'Thesis Cohagan and Morris, 1907. (Represems only laboratory tests) 



198 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 41 

♦SHRINKAGE OP CORN BY YEARS AND MONTHS GIVEN IN 
PERCENTAGE. 
Iowa Experiment Station. 



Month 


1898 
1899 


1899 
1900 


1900 
1901 


1902 
1903 


1903 
1904 


1 1904 
1 1905 


1905 
1906 


1906 
1907 


Av. 


Mo. 
Rate 


November 

December 

January 


8.1 
8.9 
9.0 
10.1 
10.8 
14.6 
15.0 
16.0 
17.7 
18.0 
19.9 
19.7 


4.0 
2.6 
2.3 
2.7 
4.4 
6.6 
7.4 
8.0 
7.4 
7.1 
7.6 
7.9 


2.6 

3.6 

4.6 

5.9 

6.8 

8.6 

11.4 

12.4 

15.9 

15.0 

14.0 

13.6 


1.8 

3.6 

5.7 

6.0 

9.2 

15.3 

15.1 

21.4 

22.5 

22.6 

24.8 

24.9 


8.2 
10.9 
11.7 
12.6 
14.9 
19.3 
24.3 
26.0 
26.7 
29.5 
30.5 
30.0 


8.3 
9.5 
10.2 
10.5 
15.3 
15.4 
19.0 
19.8 
20.2 
21.2 
20.6 
20.8 


7.2 
9.2 
9.0 
11.6 
12.0 
15.1 
17.5 
19.1 
19.5 
18.7 
19.3 
19.3 


1.4 

3.1 
4.5 
7.1 
8.2 
7.6 
8.2 
8.6 
8.9 
9.5 


5.2 

6.9 

7.5 

7.8 

9.7 

12.8 

14.7 

16.3 

17.3 

17.8 

18.2 

18.2 


5.2 

1.7 

.6 


February 

March 


.3 
1.9 


April 


3.1 


May 


1.9 


June 


1.6 


July 


1.0 


August 


.5 


September 

October 


.4 
.0 







As shown by above, with the exception of November, the most 
rapid shrinkage is during the months of April and May. 

1906 will be remembered as the year of the greatest corn crop 
ever grown in Iowa. The yield was heavy and the corn was well 
matured before freezing weather. The corn contained very little 
moisture, as shown by the test. 



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PORTABLE GRAIN ELEVATOR. 
Easily moved from one crib to another. 



"Shrinkage begins the last of October each year and percentage was taken each month. 



TESTS IN OTHKR STATES 199 

The crops of 1899 and 1906 will be noted as very well matured. 
The crop of 1903 will always be remembered as the "year of the soft 
corn." 

Tests in Other States. *"Three joint owners of a tract compris 
ing 6,000 acres of land, decided to make a careful test and determine 
exactly how much corn does actually shrink in weight when husked 
and cribbed under such conditions as are usually found on the ordi- 
nary farm. To this end, they erected, in the center of the tract men- 
tioned, a double crib, 26 feet wide by 250 feet long and 10 feet, high 
at the eaves, with a driveway 8 feet wide through the center, and a 
good, tight roof over all. 

Near one end of this crib a small office was built and a set of 
standard scales put in. Husking began October 22d and ended De- 
cember 17th. Every day while it was going on, every pound of corn 
that went into the crib was weighed and recorded. The quantity put 
in footed exactly 16,155 bushels of 70 pounds each. From November 
to March, the price ofifered for corn by local dealers was 38 cents per 
bushel of 70 pounds. June ist, the price went up to 52 cents and the 
corn was sold, to be delivered at the elevator, three and one-half miles 
distant, early in July. When the time for delivery arrived, the corn 
was weighed as it came out of the crib, and it was again weighed at 
the elevator, the total weight at the two places varying but a few 
pounds. The corn weighed 14,896 bushels and 40 pounds when taken 
out, showing a total shrinkage of 1,259 bushels or a small fraction 
less than 7 3-4 per cent. 

It will be seen that if these men had sold the corn immediately 
after husking, it would have netted them $6,138.90. By holding it 
until it was sufficiently cured to be handled safely in great bulk, and 
the lakes and other waterways were open to traffic, they realized 
$7,746.12 or $1,606.22 more than if they had allowed themselves to 
be frightened by the great "shrinkage bugaboo." 

In 1893, a Farmers' Club in Pennsylvania adopted a resolution ask- 
ing the members to make a test and find out by actual weight how 
much corn would shrink or lose weight from husking time until the 
next June ist. In accordance with that resolution, ten farmers re- 
ported the shrinkage from November ist to February ist as 8 2-3 per 
cent; the shrinkage from February ist to June ist as 2 2-3 per cent, 
or from husking time to June ist next, 162-3 per cent. The follow- 
ing year a similar test showed a shrinkage of 16.5 per cent. 

*P. D. Cobum, Report Kansas State Boardof Agriculture, 1896 



200 CORN 

Shrinkage of Old Corn. Tests at Illinois showed but .9 per cent 
shrinkage in the second year of storage of ear corn. 

Will it pay to hold corn for May prices in view of shrinkage? 
Figuring on the basis of the average price No. 2 (cash) corn at Chi- 
cago for a period of years from 1873 to 1906 inclusive, the following 
results are brought out: 

The highest average price in May for this period was 47.5 cents; 
the lowest average 40.6 cents, or average of averages, 44.05 cents. 
For December for the same period the figures are 46.2 cents highest, 
40.4 cents lowest, 43.4 cents average. In December a bushel of 70 
pounds would be worth, on this basis, 43.4 cents. By May, according 
to the figures of the Iowa Station for 1904, which are representative, 
that bushel would have shrunk 18.2 per cent, or 12.74 pounds, leav- 
ing to be sold at that time 57.26 pounds. The May price is 44.05 cents 
per bushel or .63 cents per pound. .63 cents per pound for 57.26 
pounds would be 36.07 cents for the bushel, which could have been 
sold in December for 43.4 cents. This would be a net loss of 7.33 cents 
on the bushel. Figuring the same shrinkage on corn in December, 
80 pounds per bushel, a loss of 2.14 cents per bushel would result. 

By taking a shorter, more recent period, it is found that the margin 
is not very much in favor of May corn, not enough, in fact, to counter- 
balance the shrinkage. The average price in December between 1901 
and 1907 inclusive, was 50.3 cents per bushel at Chicago, that of May 
for the same period was 51.9 cents. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Corn Harvesting Machinery, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 173. 

The Shrinkage of Ear Corn in Cribs, 
Illinois Buletin No. 113. 

Moisture in Corn, 

Iowa (Press). 

Shrinkage of Corn, 

Farmers 'Bulletin No. 210. 

Shrinkage of Corn, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 317. 
Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 

Bachelor Thesis of Morris and Cohagan, 
Iowa State College, 1907. 



CHAPTER X 

THE COST OF GROWING CORN 

In the past, corn growers as a class have not kept accurate figures 
regarding the cost of production. Profits have accrued because of the 
margin between the cost of production and the selHng price. 
The fertiHty of the soil, the cheapness of labor, and the access to 
larger areas, were factors which tended toward profits, no matter how 
small the crop. The reverse of these conditions has driven men to 
thinking and figuring. No such large areas are now available for de- 
spoilation in extensive slipshod methods. Labor demands almost ex- 
cessive payment for the number of hours actually employed. The 
virgin soil no longer yields abundantly year after year without re- 
turn of manure and rotation of crops. 

The solution of the problem is increased yield and economy of 
production. Conservation of the soil fertility by feeding the crops on 
the farm, thus returning nearly all of the elements of plant food in 
an available form, better cultural methods, eradication of weeds, the 
use of labor-saving machinery and the breeding of the best corn adapt- 
ed to the locality, will accomplish these results. Some estimates 
are here given regarding the cost of producing corn in different parts 
of the corn belt. 

COST OF PRODUCTION DEFINED 

According to the Farm Management investigators of the United 
States Department of Agriculture a farm can not properly be called 
successful unless : 

First — It pays a fair rate of interest on the investment. 

Second — It returns fair wages for the farmer's labor. 

Third — It maintains at the same time the fertility of the soil. 

In other words, three factors are always involved in crop produc- 
tion, namely, the capital, the man and the soil. These must necessarily 
be considered in figuring the cost of production, and in determining 
profit and loss. 



202 CORN 

At the suggestion of the United States Department of Agriculture 
"cost of production" for the corn crop' may be analyzed as follows : 

(1) Labor cost. 

(2) Seed. 

(3) Fertilizer. 

(4) Equipment. 

(5) Interest, taxes and upkeep on land. 

(6) Overhead Expenses, etc. 

LABOR COST. One of the main items in producing the corn 
crop is labor which may be classified as follows : 

(1) Man labor. 

(2) Horse labor. 

(3) Power labor. 

Man Labor. It is customary to get along with as little extra paid 
help as possible, but all labor spent on a crop should be charged in the 
cost of production. Usually the prevailing wage rate is used in figur- 
ing cost of man labor. This varies of course in different localities. 
By common custom in each community, there is a wage rate with 
board furnished and another where the laborer boards himself. In a 
report of the United States Department of Agriculture, March 20, 
1915, the average wage per month without board, all of the states 
being- included, was $29.88 during the previous year. Individual state 
averages ranged from $16.50 in South Carolina to $56.00 in Nevada. 

Including board, the wages per month averaged $21.05 for the 
United States, ranging from $12.00 per month in South Carolina to 
$39.00 per month in Nevada. 

Day labor other than harvest, without board, averaged $1.45 per 
day, ranging from $0.82 in South Carolina to $2.54 in Montana. The 
same with board furnished averaged $1.13, ranging from $0.64 in 
South Carolina to $1.80 in Montana. 

Day labor at harvest time, without board, averaged $1.91, ranging 
from $1.06 in Mississippi to $3.25 in North Dakota. With board fur- 
nished, the average was $1.55, ranging from $0.82 in Mississippi to 
$2.68 in North Dakota. While the wage rate fluctuates between dif- 
ferent years, there has been an increase of approximately 50 per cent 
in farm wages during the past fifteen years. 



LABOR 203 

111 case of hired labor the hibor cost is easily figured. With the 
total amount paid out divided by the number of hours work employed, 
or simpler still, ])y dividing the daily wage by the average numljer of 
hours worked i)er day, the cost i)er "Man Hour" is given. 

With a record of the time spent on a given crop it will then be easy 
to determine the cost of "Man Labor" for that crop. 

All unpaid labor, such as work done by the farmer himself, and 
by members of the family to whom no regular wages are paid, should 
be included in figuring total lal)or cost. 

Horse Labor. The term "Horse Labor" applies of course to the 
use of the farm horses. The cost per "horse hour" is determined by 
dividing the total cost of keeping the horses by the number of hours 
worked. Knowing the number of hours devoted to each field it re- 
mains easy to figure the cost of horse labor for the various crops. In 
determining the cost of keep for the horses, three items are involved : 
feed, labor in caring for the horses and interest on investment, in- 
cluding taxes, veterinary expenses, shoeing, etc. 

In the li\e stock account the horses have been credited with the 
amount of work done, etc. The sum of all these credits subtracted 
from the sum of the debits, or charges, gives the cost of horse labor 
for the year. 

Another method of determining the cost of horse labor, sometimes 
used, has been to charge the maintenance of all the horses used on the 
farm to the cultivated area, and to apportion the dififerent crops ac- 
cordmg to the relative acreage and amount of work done. 

Power Labor. This refers to tractors, engines, etc., used on the 
farm in ])lace of horses, usually. The cost per hour may be figured in 
the same manner as for the horses. This would invoUe all costs in 
running and maintaining the power machine. By knowing the amount 
of time given to each crop the proper charge can l)c entered in the 
cost of production. 

Amount and Character of Labor. The amount and character of 
the labor required to produce the corn crop varies necessarily in dif- 
ferent sections of the corn belt, and with different corn growers. The 
following table taken from Farmer's Bulletin No. 661 of the United 
States Department of Agriculture gives the approximate number of 
hours needed in the production of corn, including both man and horse : 



204 CORN 

TABLE NO. 43 

SHOWING NUMBER OF WORK UNITS REQUIRED FOR EACH ACRE OF 

CORN PRODUCED. 

(A workin g unit is defined as a 10-hour day of man or horse labor) 

WORK UNITS PER A. (10-hr. days) 
Man i Horse 

Corn husked from standing stalks 

Corn Belt states 2 to 3 5 

Corn husked from shock 6 6 

Corn for silo 4 to 6 5 to 7 

Corn husked, Southern States 3 to 4 3 to 4 

Treating labor more in detail the necessary operations in corn 
production are classified as follows : 

(1) Breaking or removing stalks. 

(2) Discing or dragging. 

(3) Plowing. 

(4) Harrowing. 

(5) Listing. 

(6) Applying manure or fertilizer. 

(7) Planting. 

(8) Cultivation. 

(9) Gathering and cribbing. 

(10) Cutting or binding. 

(11) Shocking. 

(12) Shelling and marketing. 

A few years ago the American Agriculturist and the Orange Judd 
Farmer made an extensive investigation of the cost of growing the 
corn crop. The reports covered in a very complete manner 4,051 
acres, located in 156 counties in 21 states. In considering the differ- 
ent operations necessary in corn production, data will be given from 
the results of this investigation. This is of value mainly in that it 
represents an average over a wide range of territory under a variety 
of conditions. In the itemized records of cost given later, as reported 
by extensive growers in the corn belt, the amount of work accom- 
plished per day's labor will be seen to be considerably greater than 
is represented in these averages. 

Removing Stalks. When corn is grown two years in succession, 
the first work of preparation is the removal of old stalks. Cutting up 
and carrying off was practiced on 784 acres, requiring 91 1-2 days of 
labor and 76 days of team service. The actual accomplishment was 



LABOR OPERATIONS 205 

8.6 acres per day of labor. Breaking, raking and burning was prac- 
ticed on 889 acres, requiring 92 days of labor and 79 3-4 days of team 
service, the average accomplishment being 9.7 acres per day's labor. 

Plowing. Of the 4,051 acres, 3,491 were plowed, the remaining 
560 acres being listed in. To plow 725 acres in the fall required 293 
days of labor with 382 days of team service, or an accomplishment of 2.47 
acres per day's labor. The discrepancy between days of labor and 
days of team service is of course due to the fact that more than two 
horses were frequently used to the plow, and in all such cases team 
work is stated in the equivalent of two horses. The spring plowing of 
2,766 acres required 1,154 3-4 days of labor and 1,479 days of team 
service, an accomplishment of 2.4 acres per day's labor. 

Harrowing. The amount of work done in the way of harrowing, 
discing, rolling, dragging and otherwise preparing the seedbed varies 
greatly in local practice. Instances appear in the schedule where the 
field was worked seven times, while in other cases only one working 
was given. Of the 4,051 acres, harrowing or other similar prepara- 
tion was practiced on 3,280. As only 560 acres were listed this leaves 
211 acres on which planting followed plowing with no effort to pre- 
pare the seedbed. It required 496 3-4 days of labor and 668 1-4 days 
of team service to accomplish the harrowing, or an average of 6.6 
acres per day's labor. 

Listing. This method of planting is little practiced except in Kan- 
sas and Nebraska. Under the proper soil and climatic conditions it is 
desirable, and so far as the amount of labor required is concerned it 
is far cheaper than the usual practice. In this investigation 560 acres 
were listed, requiring 92 1-2 days of labor and 119 1-4 days of team 
service, the accomplishment per day's labor being 6.1 acres. 

Fertilizing. The percentage of the total corn acreage which in 
any year is fertilized by the direct application of fertilizing material 
is so small as to hardly merit consideration. Where this is done at 
all it is usually thus treated once in a series of years, so that the full 
cost of such treatment cannot properly be charged to a single crop 
following. In the schedules fertilizing was reported on some parts 
of 1,639 acres, requiring 634 1-4 days of labor and 483 1-4 days of team 
service. 

Planting. Planting methods included the whole range from hand 
dropping and hoe covering to the use of hand planters, and up through 
machines of varying efficiency to the best modern horse planters. As 
a result the efficiency of a day's labor varies widely, from .71 of an 



206 CORN 

acre in New Hampshire to 12.44 acres in Nebraska. The acreage 
regularly planted was 3,491 acres, requiring 442 1-4 days of labor 
and 375 3-4 days of team service — an average accomplishment of 7.89 
acres per day's labor. 

Cultivation. The cost of cultivation differs more than any other 
operation, owing to the differences in implements used, and to differ- 
ent degrees of care and labor given the crop. The whole area, 4,051 
acres, was cultivated twice ; 3,991 acres were cultivated three times ; 
2^515 acres received a fourth cultivation, while 442 acres were given 
additional cultivation. To perform the total amount of cultivation 
given to the crop, for the record required 2,296 1-2 days of labor and 
2,297 1-2 days of team service. The average performance per day's 
^abor was 1.76 acres; this, of course, representing the total cultivation 
given to this breadth during the whole season. A day's labor sufficed 
to cultivate about 6.6 acres. 

Gathering and Cribbing. Two methods were followed ; first, cutting 
up and shocking, then husking from the shock ; second, husking from 
the standing stalks, the stalks left standing in the field to be pastured 
down. In this investigation 2,976 acres were husked standing, 
requiring 2,438 days of labor and 2,264 days of team service, the ac- 
complishment being 1.22 acres per day's labor, this including cribbing 
as well as husking. Of the crop cut up, 659 acres were done by hand, 
requiring 595 3-4 days of labor, or i.ii acres per day. Husking from 
the shock was practiced on 651 acres, excluding 212 acres by con- 
tract, requiring 1,223 3~4 days of labor and 382 1-2 days of team ser- 
vice, or an accomplishment in husking and cribbing of .53 acres per 
day's labor. 

SEED COST. Up to the present time we have been concerned 
with the labor cost. Going now to the cost of seed it is but a simple 
matter to compute this, especially where seed is purchased from some 
dealer and the cost is known. In case the seed has been home grown 
the cost should be figured to include actual labor in selecting, storing 
and preparation for planting. In the reports given this cost varies 
from $1.00 to $8.00 per bushel, the average being around $3.50. In 
most of the accounts, however, the seed is charged at only the prevail- 
ing seed corn price, not including cost of storing, preparation for 
planting, etc. A bushel should plant approximately seven acres. 

FERTILIZER. The method of figuring the cost of fertilizer ap- 
plied to the land for each crop varies, but the government charges 50 
per cent of this cost to the crop for that year, apportioning the balance 
to the succeeding crops, that is where manure is used. According to 



SEED, FERTILIZER AND EQUIPMENT 207 

the Indiana Experiment Station the value given to a ton of manure is 
approximately $2.25^ which represents the amount of fertility con- 
tained in the manure at the prevailing market prices. At any rate all 
fertilizer used should be charged to the succeeding crops, 

EQUIPMENT. This includes first of all the machinery used in the 
production of the crop. In considering the depreciation in the value 
of machinery much depends upon the care given and the extent to 
which it is used. The rate of depreciation will vary from 5 to 20 per 
cent. Probably from 7 to 12 per cent would be approximately correct 
for most farms. This can be figured from the inventory taken in the 
spring. Any new machinery purchased is charged to "Improvements" 
and only the interest and depreciation charged to cost of production. 
Adding to the depreciation, the interest on the average value of the 
machinery for the year gives the total cost of machinery use. In order 
to distribute this cost, it may be assumed that for every hour horses 
were worked machinery was used. Knowing then the number of 
hours spent in the care of each crop and the total cost of machinery 
use the cost per "machinery hour" may be figured. Multiplying this 
by the number of hours given to any crop gives the amount to be 
charged against that crop for machinery use. Any labor in repairing 
and keeping up the machinery is also charged to this account and ap- 
portioned among the various crops. This account also includes har- 
ness, etc. 

INTEREST, TAXES AND UPKEEP ON LAND. This may be 
called the "Real Estate Account," which includes the value of land, 
buildings, fences and water supply. Normal farm values should be 
used. It includes also the upkeep of the land and improvements, in- 
terest, taxes, depreciation of buildings, etc. The proportion of this to 
be charged to each crop may be determined according to the acreage 
devoted to the same, and buildings used, as barns, cribs, etc. 

In case the land is rented, the rental charge is considered instead 
of interest on land. 

OVERHEAD EXPENSES. In addition to the interest on land 
the interest on the cash required to run the farm should be charged. 
This may be apportioned among the various crops, live stock, etc. It 
should represent the average amount of money the farmer is ol)liged 
to have on hand at all times during the year for the purpose of paying 
current expenses. 

There is still left a great variety of items which plainly cc^ne under 
the head of expense. Taxes on personal property, current expenses, 
telephone, insurance, etc., must be apportioned among the different 
crops, live stock, etc. 



208 



CORN 



FODDER. The value of fodder as a by-product must be taken 
from the gross cost of growing the corn crop. Where the crop is cut 
and shocked, the value of the fodder is an important item, but where 
the crop is husked standing the value of the stalks for pasturage is 
slight. 

In the following statement is given an account of the actual cost 
of producing corn in 1912, by Mr. Fred McCulloch of Hartwick, Iowa. 
This record was taken under the direction of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture and it represents a summary of the daily 
records which were made by Mr. McCulloch. 

TABLE NO. 44 

SHOWING ACCOUNT WITH CORN IN FIELD "D" 2 

(38.91 acres valued at $5,658.70) 

TOTAL LABOR TOTAL COST LABOR PER ACRE COST 
Man Horse (for entire Man Horse per ACRE 
Hours Hours field) Hours Hours 

Labor costs*** 918^ 1888 $495.54 23.6 48.52 $12.74 

Tractor 38l hours 46.70 ' 1.20 

Manure charge* 

20% of 1910 application 64.15 

50% of 1912 application ' 8.61 1.87 

Seed, 6.05 bus. at $8.00... 48.40 1.24 

Machinery use cost 85.20 2.19 

Interest on 1911 costs** 

Brought forward 3.20 .08 

Interest on land value 282.94 7.27 

Overhead expense 60.17 1.55 

Total cost $1,094.91 $28.14 

Total yield 2,685 bus. Cost per bushel 40.8 cents 

INCOME 

2,545 bu. corn at $ .40 $1,018.00 (65.4 bu. per acre) ^,- ,, 

140 bu. (seed) corn at $2.50 350.00 ( 3.6 bu. per acre) ^^^-^^ 

Stalks at $ .50 per acre 19.46 

Income $1,387.46 $35.66 

Total costs $1,094.91 $28.14 

Profit $ 292.55 $ 7.52 

Without figuring the extra value of the seed corn in the total in- 
come, it will be seen in the foregoing statements that there would 
have been practically no profit. 

Of special consequence in the foregoing table is the cost of pro- 
duction which amounts to $28.14 per acre or 40.8 cents per bushel. 

*In the manure charge 20 per cent of the 1910 application and 50 per cent of the 1912 applica- 
tion was charged to the crop for 1912. 
** Interest on 1911 costs refers to work and material employed on this field the fall previous. 
•**Mr. McCulloch found that his cost for labor was as follows: Per man hour. 14.9 cents; per 
horse hour, 10 cents and per tractor hour, $1.22. 



COST OF PRODUCTION 209 

An investigation conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion of Missouri* found the cost per acre of producing corn to be 
$13.52. This represents accurate costs taken from 357 acres. 

TABLE NO. 45 

SHOWING COST OF PRODUCING CORN. (Missouri) 

Cost Per cent 

Items per acre of total cost 

Man labor $3,074 22.7 

Horse labor 3.596 26.9 

Seed .275 2.0 

Equipment 1.021 7.6 

Use of land — taxes, interest and upkeep 5.164 38.2 

Manure .392 2.9 



Total $13,522 100 

Of the total cost of producing the crop ($13.52 per acre) 49.6 per 
cent, or practically one-half, is charged to labor; and 38 per cent of 
the total is taxes, and upkeep usually termed "use of land." 

As a result of this same investigation, covering a large acreage, the 
labor requirement of the different field operations in caring for the 
corn crop was computed. This is given in the following table : 

TABLE NO. 46 

SHOWING LABOR REQUIREMENT OF FIELD OPERATIONS 

Total Man-hours Horse-hours 

Operation acres per acre per acre 

Discing 1187.0 1.48 5.33 

Plowing 1227.8 3.76 9.51 

Harrowing 1423.4 1.12 3.12 

Planting corn 1082.3 1.40 2.21 

Cultivating 1750.7 2.36 4.32 

Harvesting corn 412.0 5.29 7.10 

Filling silo 56.0 8.78 8.43 

Storing grain 173.0 2.68 3.59b 

The foregoing table gives the number of hours labor for both man 
and horse for each operation. In the following table the labor re- 
quirement is classified and recorded in three divisions : preparation 
and planting, cultivating and harvesting. 

•Missouri Bulletin No. 125. 

b — Hauling corn from field to barn. 



210 CORN 

*TABLE NO. 47 
SHOWING LABOR REQUIREMENT PER ACRE— CLASSIFIED. (Missouri) 

Per ct. Total Per ct. Total 

Crops Man-hours Horse hours Man-hours Horse-hours 

Corn (679.7 acres) 

Preparation and planting 7.67 19.72 32.07 46.60 

Cultivating 7.90 13.44 33.03 31.76 

Harvesting 8.35 9.16 34.90 21.64 

Total 23.92 42.32 100.00 100.00 

Approximately 32 per cent of the necessary man labor and 46.6 per 
cent of the horse labor is required for preparation of land and planting. 
Cultivation takes 33 per cent of the man labor and 31.7 per cent of the 
horse labor. For harvesting, approximately 35 per cent of the man 
labor and 21.6 per cent of the horse labor is required. These figures 
should apply to average conditions in the determination of labor cost 
for the corn crop. 

INDIVIDUAL ESTIMATES OF COST 

Several reports received from prominent corn growers and large 
farms are given to show cost of production in various localities of 
the corn belt. Of course in these following estimates some items have 
been omitted, which should be included in the total cost of production. 

Sibley Estate. There are many methodical farmers who realize 
the importance of knowing what it costs them to produce their crops, 
and such men possess data which answer the question of cost of 
growing so far as their own well managed farms are concerned. The 
Hiram Sibley estate at Sibley, Illinois, a notable example of large and 
well managed farming operations, has accurate records of cost of 
production of its crops. The manager, Mr. F. A. Warner, has sub- 
mitted the following figures showing the cost of growing a crop of 
sixty acres of corn upon the estate for the year 1914. 

The following is figured on a sixty bushel yield. It will be noted 
that a five per cent interest charge on the land valued at $150.00 per 
acre has been made. This would be equivalent to a rental of $7.50 
per acre. 

*Missouri Bulletin No. 125. 



COST OF PRODUCTION 211 

TABLE NO. 48 

COST PER BUSHEL OF RAISING CORN ON 60 ACRES 

(Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois, 1914) 

1— Fall plowing 45 acres at $1.50 $67.50 

2 — Breaking 15 acres corn stalks 4.00 

3 — Spring" plowing 15 acres at $1.25 18.75 

4 — Discing 45 acres fall plowing 4^ days at $4.50 20.25 

5 — Harrowing before planting. 4 horses, 1 man, 2 days 9.00 

6— Seed corn, 9 bushels at $1.00 9.00 

7— Planting- 60 acres, 3^ days, $4.00 per day 14.00 

8 — Harrowing after planting 9.00 

9 — Cultivating first time, 2 men, 2 teams, 4 days at $3.50 28.00 

10 — Cultivating second time, 2 men, 2 teams, 3^ days at $3.50 — 24.50 

11 — Cultivating third time, 2 men, 2 teams, 3 days at $3.50 21.00 

12 — Extra work thinning and weeding 10.00 

13— Husking 2400 bushels at 3lc 84.00 

14 — Shelling and marketing at 3c 72.00 

15_Value land, $150.00 per acre on 60 acres 5% 450.00 

16 — Taxes on 60 acres 20.00 

17 — Repairs and upkeep 15.00 

$876.00 
Cost per bushel of corn to produce and deliver to market, 36 cents. 

Mr. John Sundberg, a prominent corn grower of Monona County 
in western Iowa gives the following estimate on the cost of producing 
the 1914 crop. 

TABLE NO. 49 

COST OF PRODUCING ONE BUSHEL OF CORN ON $250.00 LAND 
(Monona County, Iowa) 

Interest at 5% on valuation, and $1.25 per acre taxes 200 mills 

Cutting, raking and burning of stalks 12 

Discing ground 16 

Plowing for corn 20 

Planting 6 

Harrowing twice 6 

Cultivating four times 18 

Gathering of corn 45 

Fence 5 

Grease, oils and repairs, and wear on machinery 8 

Total cost per bushel 336 mills 

This is figured at 60 bu. per acre. 33.6c per bushel, $20.16 per acre. 



212 CORN 

"By using silos we are getting at least one-third more from our 
land," states Mr. Sundberg. 

Mr. F. H. Klopping from the same district, Pottawattamie County, 
also well known to the corn breeders, made the following estimate for 
the 1914 crop. 

TABLE NO. 50 

COST OF PRODUCING AN ACRE OF CORN. (Pottawattamie County, Iowa) 

Breaking and raking stalks $ .17 

Plowing .80 

Harrowing three times .20 

Discing two times .30 

Planting .18 

Cultivating four times 1.60 

Husking corn 2.30 

Interest on machinery and horses and deterioration of same, 

about .45 

Interest on land and taxes 12.20 

Total cost per acre $18.20 

With a 50-bushel crop the cost per bushel would be 35 cents. A 
yield of 40 bushel would cost 45 cents per bushel. 

Another estimate from western Iowa was submitted by Mr. George 
M. Allee of Buena Vista County, 1914. 

TABLE NO. SI 
COST OF PRODUCING AN ACRE OF CORN. (Buena Vista County, Iowa) 

On basis of one acre. ($3.50 for man and 2 horses.) ($5.00 for man and more than 2 horses.) 

1 — Discing stalks (twice) 20 acres per day $ .50 

2 — Plowing — 2^ acres per day 2.00 

3 — Discing (twice) .50 

4 — Harrowing (once) 40 acres per day .12 

5 — Planting — 16 acres per day .21 

6 — Harrowing (twice) .25 

7 — Cultivation (4 times) 7 acres per day 2.00 

8 — Husking and hauling to market, at 8c per bu per 50 bu yield 4.00 

9— Rent 6.00 

10 — Seed at $3.50 per bushel (7 acres per bu.) .50 

$16.08 
Cost per bushels (50 bushels per acre) 32.1 cents. 

In the foregoing estimates note that Mr. Sundberg figured the cost 
on the basis of interest on land value and taxes which amounted to 
about $13.75 per acre, while Mr. Allee figured the cost on a rental 



COST OF I'RoniJCTlON 213 

charge of $6.00 per acre. TIoweNer, lliese men ll^ured the cost at about 
3.^ cents per bushel. 

fnquiries from the eastern half of Iowa revealed but slightly vary- 
ing estimates. 

Neal Bros., of Mt. X'ernon, Iowa, ha\e carefully prepared the fol- 
lowing estimate, l)ased on twenty acres. 

TABLE NO. 52 
COST OF PRODUCING CORN (Linn County, Iowa) 

1 — Plowing, 1 man and 4 horses at $5.25 per day, 4 acres per day_$27. 25 
2 — Harrowing — 1 man and 4 horses at $5.25 per day, 40 acres per 

day 15.75 

3 — Discing — 1 man and 4 horses at $5.25 per day, 25 acres per 

day 8.40 

4 — Planting — 1 man and 2 horses at $3.25 per dav, 20 acres in 

1| days I 4.00 

5— Cultivation — 1 man and 2 horses at $3.25 ])er day, acres })er 

day, 13 1-3 days 43.33 

6 — Seed corn, 3 bushels tested seed '^00 

7— Rent at $6.00 per acre 120.00 

8 — Husking and cribbing at 4ic per bushel 45.00 

9 — Insurance and wear on machinery 10.00 

$2i<2.73 
Cost per acre, $14.14. Cost of 1,280 bu., $282.73 or 23.6c per bushel. 

This does not include shelling and marketing, as the corn is fed on 
the farm to keep up the yields. Note that a rental of only $6.00 per 
acre has been charged. 

yir. D. L. Pascal, grower of prize winning Reids' Yellow Dent 
corn in Clinton County, Iowa, figures the cost of production as fol- 
lows : 

TABLE NO. 53 
COST OF PRODUCING CORN (Clinton County. Iowa) 

1 — Discing the land twice before plowing $ .75 

2 — Harrowing before plowing .25 

3 — Plowing land 1.75 

4 — Plarrowing twice after plowing .40 

5 — Discing twice before planting .75 

6 — Harrowing twice before planting .40 

7 — Seed 1 .50 

8— Planting .30 

9 — Harrowing after planting .20 

10 — Cultivating five times 3.50 

11 — Husking per bushel and men board selves, 60 bu. at 5c 3.00 

12 — Rent for corn land would average here 8.00 

Cost of producing acre [ $19.80 

At 60 bushels per acre, cost 33.0 cents per bushel. 
(B) ' 



214 CORN 

From the foregoing reports from corn growers the cost per bushel 
ranges from 23.6 cents to 36 cents, and the cost per acre from $14.14 
to $21.60, the average for the six farms being 32.4 cents per bushel or 
$18.89 per acre. These accounts however do not include any charge 
for manure, and, many other items included in Mr. McCulloch's re- 
port are omitted. 

PROFITS IN CORN GROWING. 

The difference between the cost of producing an acre of corn and 
the value of the product is the profit. Figuring this cost on the basis 
of 5 per cent on the investment would naturally make considerable 
difference in the different localities, due to the value of the land, but 
on the whole, it may be very conservatively stated that, in the heart 
of the corn belt, it is quite impossible to raise an acre of corn for less 
than $15.00, figuring 5 per cent on the money invested in the land and 
the operating expenses. . 

Of course it is not necessary to double tlic yield in order to double 
the profit. Suppose it costs thirty bushels of corn to grow an acre of 
corn, then if you had a yield of thirty-one bushels you would have one 
bushel profit ; if your field was thirty-two bushels, you would have 
twice the profit. It will be seen that the percentage of net profit re- 
ceived from an acre of corn increases rapidly with an increase over and 
above the actual number of bushels of corn it costs to produce the acre. 

For example, here are some figures taken from the United States 
Department of Agriculture, wherein they figured the average value of 
a bushel of corn over a period of years, at 42.4 cents, while the grow- 
ing cost per acre was figured at $14.63, with the following results : 

40 acres of corn yielding 75 bushels per acre makes as much net 
profit as 104 1-4 acres, yielding 50 bushels to the acre, or 293 acres 
yielding 40 bushels per acre or 3,270 acres of corn yielding 35 bushels 
per acre. 

The increased net profits are quite alarming when you stop to con- 
sider that a forty-acre field of corn, yielding 75 bushels to the acre 
will produce more net profit than five sections of corn, producing 35 
bushels to the acre. 

This clearly shows that it is more bushels of corn to the acre and 
not more acres that really make most for a increased net profit. 



PROFITS IN CORN GROWING 



215 



COLLATERAL READING: 

Cost of Producing Corn, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 97. 
Cost of Farm Crops, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 29. 
Cost of Producing Farm Products, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 48. 
Corn and Oats, Cost of Production, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 50. 

Farmer's Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, No. 661. 

Missouri Bulletin No. 125. 

Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, No. 584. 




CHAPTER XI. 

DISEASES AND INSECTS ATTACKING CORN 



DISEASES OF THE CORN PLANT 

CORN SMUT (Ustilago mays zca). The appearance of smut in 
corn fields is a common occurrence each year. The extent to which 
it is found is governed greatly by the favorable or unfavorable cli- 
matic and soil conditions which appear to have a corresponding effect 
upon both the growth of the corn plant and that of the corn smut. 
The damage done to the corn crop varies with the season. It is some- 
times considerable. 

Description. Smut seldom attacks the corn plant before it has 
reached a height of two or three feet. Occasionally, however, smaller 
plants are affected. Small patches of a whitish color may be seen 
swelling on the surface of the leaves, which are usually attacked 
first. This infection in its first development may cause the leaf to 
take on a reddish appearance. Early in the growth of the infected 
part spots will turn from a whitish to a black color, due to the forma- 
tion of spores. As the plant matures the infection seems to be the 
greatest at the junction of the leaf and sheath. 

Quite frequently the tassel is found badly smutted, together with 
the greater portion of the stalk above the ear. The first joint below 
the tassel is probably the most common place of attack. The whole 
ear may be affected, or only a portion of it; but after the rudimentary 
ears are developed from the lower nodes the brace roots are the only 
points of infection. This is due to the fact that the smut spores do 
not penetrate any other than growing tissue. When entrance has 
been secured a local infection sets in, the smut masses soon appearing 
near the point of entrance. 

Some of the infection of the corn smut is brought about by the 
spores — the black powder contained within the mass — but the infec- 
tions are chiefly due to the Conidia which are produced from the 
spore after germination. These are bead-like bodies which are borne 
at the ends of short branches of a thread which protrudes from the 



CORN SMUT 



217 




218 CORN 

spore. These spores germinate very poorly in water, but grow rap- 
idly in nutrient solutions such as liquid manure. A well manured 
soil is favorable for their production. When one of these little con- 
idia is freed from the stem on which it grows and is carried by the 
wind, alighting upon an active growing portion of the corn plant, it 
soon germinates and sends out a thread-like mycelium which pene- 
trates the tissues. Generally about two weeks' time intervenes be- 
tween the period of inoculation and the appearance of smut spores. 
From this time on growth is very rapid. These smut balls often 
attain a size larger than an ear of corn. Should a smut ball fall to 
the ground and favorable conditions present themselves, the above 
outlined life cycle is repeated. 

It is thought that the early infections come from last year's spores 
which germinate as soon as favorable conditions are at hand. The 
slender threads that are put forth by the conidium when it alights 
on a growing portion, are colorless and known as the mycelium. They 
send numerous branches into the cells of the plant, which draw from 
it nourishment for their own maintenance. These slender threads 
(the mycelium) develop very rapidly, and soon become a dense, felt- 
like mass. A little later practically the entire mass is converted into 
small round spores. 

Corn smut cannot be prevented by soaking the seed in fungicides, 
as is the case with oat smut and the stinking smut of wheat. This 
is due to the fact that the infection takes place after the plant begins 
its growth, and does not result from the spores being present on the 
seed. The smut of corn resembles the rust of wheat in its mode 
of attack. If the smut balls are all removed from the stalks and 
destroyed, the percentage of infection will be greatly decreased. This 
practice is carried on to some extent by smaller farmers. The ex- 
pense incurred, however, is usually greater than the loss due to the 
smut. 

Loss Is In the Ears. 

Experiments carried on at the Kansas Agricultural College go to 
show that the loss to corn plants attacked by smut is chiefly in the 
grain, the weights of smutted and clean stalks being practically the 
same, while the loss in the yield of corn amounts to about one-third, 
even though the ears themselves are not attacked. 

The following table from the Kansas Agricultural College counts 
the smutted stalks just as they came regardless of the place of in- 
fection : 



CORN SMUT 



219 



WEIGHT OF STALKS AND EARS OF SMUTTED AND CLEAN CORN 

BY GRAMS. 

Smutted. 



Jtow 
Number 


Nunibei- ol 
Stalks 


Weight of Stalks 
Total Average 


Weight 
Total 


ol I'2ars 
Average 


69 
70 


19 

12 


4,421 
2,578 


233 
215 


2,781 
2,268 


146 

186 


Clean 


1 43 
1 53 


11,540 1 268 
10,684 1 201 


9,999 
11,183 


2S3 
211 



The average weight per stalk of the smutted corn is 225 grams, 
while the average weight of the clean corn is 229 grams, being but 
little better in weight of stalk. The average weight of the ear on 
the smutted stalk is 162.8 grams, while the average weight of the 
ears on the clean stalks is 213.3 grams, being decided in favor of the 
ears on the clean stalks, representing a loss of 23.6 per cent in weight 
of ears for the smutted corn.* 

Composition of Corn Smut. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CORN SMUT COMPARED WITH 
CORN STALK AND CORN FODDER IN PER CENT. 


CORN, 


Water Protein 


Fat 


Nitrogen 
"ree Extract 


Fiber 


Ash 


Corn smut | 8.3 

Corn 1 10.9 

Corn Stalk 68.4 

Corn Fodder 42.2 


13.1 

10.5 

1.9 

4.5 


1.4 

5.4 

.5 

1.6 


29.6 
69.6 
17.0 
34.7 


24.7 

2.1 

11.0 

14.3 


22.5 
1.5 
1.2 

2.7 



The Bureau of Animal Industry has carried on extensive experi- 
ments to determine whether or not corn smut is injurious to cattle, 
the opinion being more or less prevalent that it is the cause of the 
corn-stalk disease, and also conducive to abortion in cows. As much 
as II pounds of corn smut per day was fed to some of the animals. 
They seemed to relish it and the conclusion was reached that if smut 
is eaten by cattle it need occasion no alarm, since the evil effects 
which have been attributed to it do not follow. 

THE BURRILL BACTERIAL DISEASE. In 1889 Professor 

Burrill, of Illinois,** discovered a bacillus which is destructive to the 
growing corn plant. He describes its attacks as follows : 

"Thq young plant is first affected in the roots, and also in full 
grown corn stalks after midsummer, when it manifests itself by cer- 
tain discolored areas, more particularly on the leaf sheaths. An at- 
tack upon the very young plant means the dwarfing of its growth 
and destruction of the crop. A lessened yield and valueless fodder 

*From Michigan Station. 

**I5ulletin No. 6. Illinois Experiment Station, 1889. 



220 CORN 

are the only results of infection of the more mature stalk. Leaf 
sheaths and even the developing" ear are often infected, showing a 
jelly-like deposition. The ear occasionally becomes a mass of rotten 
slime. The presence of the disease is noted to a greater extent some 
years than others. The prevention has not been carefully studied as 
yet. Destroying affected parts is the only sure w^ay of absolute eradi- 
cation. This disease is sometimes known as 'corn blight.' " 

CORN WILT, F. C. Stewart, of the Geneva Experiment Station, 
New York, has identified another bacterial disease of corn. His 
observations are that the plants wilt and dry up, but do not roll 
up as in the case of lack of moisture. Young plants die in a few days, 
but the older plants live for some time. The disease has been known 
to destroy entire fields. Dr. Erwin F. Smith has investigated this 
disease and named the organism Pseudomonas Stewartii. 

LEAF BLIGHT. The infection of the leaves of corn with the 
leaf blight fungus is not discernible without the use of the magni- 
fying glass. The almost round brownish spots are usually devoid of 
life. As yet the frequency of affected plants is so limited that no con- 
cern is felt regarding the economic importance of this fungous growth. 

MAIZE RUST (Puccinia sorghi Schw). "Maize rust is found 
wherever maize is grown, but principally in regions of considerable 
rainfall. The rust does not differ materially in appearance from rusts 
of other grasses, particularly the Puccinia graminis of wheat and 
oats. The surface of the affected leaf and sheath displays small 
oblong or elliptical spots, which contain reddish brown spores. Kel- 
lerman has shown that only the iiredo and teleuto stages may be 
included in the life cycle, although Arthur has identified the aecidial 
stage on Oxalis. It passes the winter in the teleuto stage. Though 
fungicides are effective, the rust is not of enough economic impor- 
tance to warrant treatment. Pammel reports decreased yields of 
sweet maize due to the rust. The rust also occurs on sorghum and 
teosinte."* 

CORN STALK DISEASE.* This disease is characterized by the 
falling of the corn or the stalks are broken close to the joints. In 
many cases the corn is broken off just below the joint or just above. 
The pith is destroyed, brownish or in some cases reddish in color. 
The fibers are soft and easily broken off. The small dwarf shoots in 
the axis of the leaves are often decomposed. On the surface of the 
stalk and in the nodes there is often an abundance of the mould.** 



*Iowa Circular No. 21. 

**This was determined as a species of Fusariuin. Other species of this genus cause wheat scab 
or blight, flax wilt, cucumber wilt, etc. 



OTHER DISEASES 221 

The disease attacks the roots, the stalks and the ears. The specific 
organism causing the damage has not been determined. The disease 
is widely distributed throughout Iowa, and in Illinois. As a rule it is 
unnoticed until after the wind has blown over the infected corn, and 
then the damage is usually charged to the wind or to insects. 

Remedy. The only rational treatment is crop rotation. Corn 
should not follow corn where the disease exists, since the fungus re- 
mains on parts of the plants attacked. \Mien corn is planted in the 
same field the next year the young stalks will be infected. The Iowa 
Experiment Station recommends the use of formalin in treating the 
seed from infected plants; one pint of formalin to forty-five gallons 
of water for fifteen minutes. This will destroy all of the spores ad- 
hering to the surface of the corn. This treatment would avail little 
or nothing if the seed were planted in an affected field. 

EAR ROTS OF CORN.* In a field of matured corn it is not un- 
common to find ears more or less covered with and penetrated by mold. 
In many cases, husks and silks are also involved and appear cemented 
together and to the ear by, a mass of white cob-webby filaments. The 
parts affected ha\e lost their substance^ are light in weight and brit- 
tle in structure. 

This conditii)n is known as ear-rot. Several types of the disease 
are known. Some of these are so similar though that the casual ob- 
server would notice no distinction. 

The first indication that ears of corn are diseased is a fading of the 
bright green of the husks to a pale yellowish green color. With the 
advance of the disease the outer husks grow darker and darker, fre- 
quently becoming dirty and sooty in appearance. The inner husks 
too may be more or less tinged with brown, particularly along the 
advancing margin of the diseased area. 

The ear rots may be noticed first soon after the fertilization of corn 
has taken place, the number of infected ears increasing throughout 
the season. 

The best spore producing periods seem to follow hot, rainy 
weather preceded by more or less continued dry spells. Since, then, 
under favorable conditions the spores are produced in such large 
numbers throughout the season, the matter of little or much infection 
depends in part at least on these spore producing periods coming at a 
time when corn is in the most susceptible condition for infection. It 
is when corn is in the thick milk stage and later that the large per 
cent of infected ears in the field begins to show. 

•Illinois Bulletin No. 133. 



222 CORN 

These diseases occur with more or less severity over a wide area. 
In lUinois alone the State Department of Agriculture estimated the 
loss from ear rot at $5,620,147 for a single year. 

■ Corn grown on the rich, black land of our corn belt, however, is 
more subject to the disease than on higher, thinner soils. 

The greater the number of old stalks and the greater the supply of 
moisture, the better the opportunity for a continual and rapid propaga- 
tion of the most destructive of these fungi. 

The ear rots are undoubtedly more prevalent where corn is grown 
continuously for some time than on land where a careful system of 
rotation is practiced. 

Causes of Ear Rots. These diseases of corn are due to definite 
species of mold like parasites. So far as is known these grow on 
nothing but the corn plant. These molds belong to the great group 
of plants called fungi. These fungi develop upon the growing stalks 
and dead stalks, as well. They are both parasitic and saphrophitic. 

The spores are produced during the summer upon old stalks, even 
from those lying on the ground the second year, and these spores are 
readily carried by the wind. Lodging upon the developing ear, they 
germinate under favorable conditions of moisture and temperature. 
The rot does not occur without the infection of these spores. 

There are several kinds of these ear rots. Careful observation is 
necessary however, to differentiate these. The four types commonly 
discussed are as follows : 

(1) Diplodia. 

(2) Fusarium I. 

(3) Fusarium II. 

(4) Fusarium III. 

The greater amount of damage seems to be done by the "Diplodia 
Zeae." The manner of infection, character of growth and the nature 
of the damage does not seem to vary materially, however, between the 
different species. 

In the Diplodia, the germinating spore sends out a slender thread- 
like structure called a mycelium. These slender threads penetrate the 
plant tissues. After the ear has become entirely involved or the 
growth of the parasite somewhat checked, the fungus begins to form 
its reproductive stage. This consists of small black bodies which 
develop in husks, cobs, and more rarely in grains, and which contain 
large numbers of purplish brown rather slender two celled spores. 
These spores are scattered by such natural agencies as the wind. 



f 





--^ 




Lydia Moore Hart 



PLATE I. 
Fig. 1 -Thk Sekd-Corn Maggot, Pcgomyia fuscicet>s, adult. Fiji. 2 — Thk Corn 
Fi.i-.a-Bki-.ti.f, Clurtrormnfi Piilicaria. Fig. 8 — C. confinis. 



TESV OF PROFESSOR 



TE EMOMOLOGi: 



EAR ROTS 



223 



Remedy. Crop rotation seems to be the only remedy. The 
fungi harbor in the old corn stalks. Corn should not be planted for 
two years thereafter where there has been much of this disease. 

THE COB ROT OF CORN. This (hsease is manifested in a 
softening and decay of the cob, rendering the grain unmerchantable. 
The fungus causing this disease belongs to the genus "Coniosporium." 
It does not seem to affect the living corn plant. The mycelium pene- 
trates the various cob tissues and the lower portion of the kernel. It 
may cover as much as the lower half of the kernel. The infected 
corn is damaged for feeding or marketing. 




BEETLE OF THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOT WORNf AT 

WORK EARLY IN THE SPRLNG 

The stalk borer is also shown on the upper leaf. 

INSECT ENEMIES 

Tlie newly planted seed, the young plant, the growing stalk, the 
developing ear, and the stored grain, are all subject to insect enemies. 
Each year pests which have heretofore been of little economic import- 



224 CORN 

ance gain in number until they destroy whole fields. The increased 
acreage of corn on land which has been cropped for a number of years 
favors the breeding of this insect life. 

The most disastrous insect enemies are here described and rem- 
edies and preventives suggested. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROWING CROP 

THE BLACK HEADED GRASS MAGGOT (Sciara sp.) Rot- 
ting seed corn lying in the ground, is subject to very destructive at- 
tacks by this black-headed grass maggot. Many maggots may infest a 
single grain and consume everything but the hull. Sprouted grain is 
sometimes affected. Old sod land shows the majority of cases of in- 
festation and destructive attacks. 

THE SEED CORN MAGGOT (Phorbia fusciceps, Zett.) This 
maggot eats the interior out of the sprouting corn kernel. Unsprouted 
kernels, if softened, are often slightly attacked. The greatest damage 
from this pest usually occurs in a cold wet spring. Replanting is 
sometimes necessary. The adult is a small two-winged fly, looking 
very much like an ordinary house fly. Definite knowledge concerning 
the life history is not available, but Forbes, of Illinois, states that the 

larvae have been seen from May 17th to 
June 13th, pupae from June 7th to 15th, the 
adults emerging from June 11th to August 
Black-headed Grass Maggot ^th. This species hibernates as a fly. A cup- 
Scaria sp. ful of kerosene added to a bucket of dry 

sand makes a mixture which, when placed 
in small amounts at the base of the corn plant, prevents the adult fe- 
male from depositing her eggs. Kainit and nitrate of soda act in a 
similar way when moistened. Any injured plants should be destroyed 
immediately. 

WIREWORMS. Drasterius elegans. If the seed fails to come or 
the corn plant suddenly presents a withering appearance when from 10 
to 15 inches high, it is very probable that the wire worm is present, 
especially if the ground was in grass the year before, or two years 
previous. 

The wire worm is of a reddish brown color, varying from yellowish 
to reddish. It varies in length from half an inch to an inch and a half. 
Its body is slender, carrying about same width throughout and bear- 
ing very few hairs. The surface is hard and crust-like. The body has 
13 segments. On the three segments just posterior to the head are 
six pairs of short, stout legs, and on the under surface of the thirteenth 
segment is a single leg, sucker-like in appearance. 

The eggs which produce the wire worm are laid in grass lands in 









PLATE II. 

Fiir. \—Myoi/irflits (fenfiio//is. Fig. 2— The Corn Wirf.worm, Me/anotiis cribuhsiis 
Figs. 3-5. -Click Bep:tles, adults of other Corn Wireworms; j Drasteriiis e/ei^ans ; 4 Ag^riotes 
fiiatici/s : J . I . fyiibescens. 



OURTESr OF PROFSs' 



'15 6T*T6 ENTOfc:OLO 



Pr.ANT AFini')S 



225 




PLANT APHIDS AS SEEN OX THE TASSEL OF CORN 



226 



CORN 



the earth. The wire worm coming forth, feeds on the roots of grass. 
They may be found in any of our tame and wild grasses, but they are 
seldom found here in sufficient numbers to make a very great impres- 
sion on the appearance of the grass lands. However, when the 

grass land is broken up and 
the comparative number of 
plants which the field con- 
tains is few, as with corn, the 
wire worms have to concen- 
trate their labors more on 
the individual plants, and 
then it is that their presence 
is felt, the damage being 
done not only to the corn 
plants, but not uncommonly 
the seed is attacked and de- 
stroyed before the young 
plant can present itself. The 
wire worm attacks the corn 
kernel either before or after 
it has sprouted and not in- 
frequently will a kernel be 
found into which the wire 
worm has made an entrance. 
The roots of the plant are 
seriously injured, the smaller 
roots are often eaten away, while the larger ones are bored and fre- 
quently this boring is done through the underground part of the stalk. 
The total destruction of the plant generally results. This larval stage 
lasts for two years. The pupating occurs in July or August, and in 
the course of three or four weeks a reddish beetle comes forth, known 
as the "click beetle," commonly remembered by the clicking sound and 
sudden springing of the beetle when placed upon its back. The beetle 
may either remain in the ground during the winter or may come to 
the surface, passing the time in sheltered places. This is the beetle 
that lays the eggs from which comes the brownish colored larva (wire 
worm) mentioned above. Other cereals are attacked by this pest, 
as are also some of the root crops. It bothers wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
timothy, clover, etc.; and may be found attacking potatoes, turnips, 
beets, cabbage, onions, and many other crops. 




CORN PLANT SHOWING EFFECTS OF 

ATTACKS BY THE BILL BUG. 
Note that the holes in the leaves are in 
rows. 



WIRK WORMS AN'i:) CUV WORMS 227 

Prevention, Nothing can be done to eradicate this pest after it 
has attacked a plant, without injuring the plant itself. Poisons of 
the most deadly sort have been applied to corn previous to planting, 
without bringing the desired results. It appears that the only alterna- 
tive lies in a rotation of crops. The trouble lies in the fact that the 
larval stage lasts two years. The second year after the plowing of 
the sod is when the largest damage is done to the corn field, due to 
the greater amount of grass that is present in the field in which the 
larvae can live the first year after plowing. The scanty amount of 
grass the second year compels the worm to center its attacks more 
especially on the corn. Should the sod be plowed in the fall and 
sown to fall or winter wheat, seeding to clover the following spring, 
or sowing oats in the spring and seeding to clover, a crop may be had 
the following fall from one of these cereals, and the next year a crop 
of clover may be harvested. It will be seen that in this way the larva is 
given the two years in which to mature and pupate. The small grain 
following the sod is not likely to be seriously injured. The clover 
coming the second year when the pupating takes place, the ground will 
then be free of the larvae, and when fall plowed little fear need be 
entertained regarding the wire worm attacking corn the year follow- 
ing, which would be the third year after breaking the sod, and the 
crops intervening would not have seriously suffered. 

When replanting is necessary, it is advisable to straddle the rows 
and leave the old plants standing, for if these are destroyed the worm 
will immediately attack the new plants and a second poor stand will 
result. A little later the old plants may be plowed out. 

Fall plowing assists greatly in destroying the pupae, bringing them 
to the surface where the birds can devour them, and the cold weather 
will help to retard their development. 

CUT WORMS, These caterpillars are exceedingly harmful at 
times, their damage being of a very injurious nature. They attack the 






Clay-backed Cutworm. (Feltia filadiaria) Enlarged. 

young plant by eating off the leaves and portions of the stalk, often 
cutting the plant off close to the ground. This work is done at night. 
In the daytime they may be found hiding under clods or buried just 
beneath the surface of the ground. Th'ey have the conspicuous habit 
of curling up. Their larvae vary in color from a whitish to a dark 



228 CORN 

brown. The skin is rather smooth, the body thick, generally marked 
I)y longitudinal lines with an occasional blotch. 

The eggs which produce these worms are laid by grayish or brown- 
ish colored moths, and are deposited in grass lands late in the season. 
These eggs hatch the same fall and the young larva immediately feeds 
upon the roots of the grasses until winter sets in, when it buries itself 
in the ground, curls up and waits for the warm days of early spring. 
Then it again resumes its activities, which so often prove disastrous 
to the prospective corn crop. Often the outer rows of a corn field are 
damaged severely, due to the cutworms coming in from an adjoining 
field of grass or clover. 

There is generally but one generation. However, there are a. few 
species that have two and three broods per year. The larva has 
generally reached its maturity by July 1st, when it buries itself in the 
earth and begins to pupate. The pupa is leathery brovv^n in appear- 
ance. A grayish or brown moth appears toward the latter part of the 
summer. 

Prevention and Remedy. As the cut worm is most destructive to 
corn following grass, early plowing is one of the best methods of 
pre\'cnting its activities. Poison can be used to good efifect by mixing 

paris green with bran or mid- 
dlings, one pound of former to 
30 of latter. This may be dis- 
tributed by means ot a seed 
,jV drill. Should the worms be in 

''^' , grass land bordering a corn 

'■^s^SKis^ ^M- ~"-';:;;sss' field, the latter may be pro- 

'^ i.jfl*'' tected by poisoning fresh 

Clay-backed Cutworm. clover with a solution of paris 

(Feltia gladtara). Adult. . . 

green, one pound of pans 

green to 50 gallons of water, and scattering this along the edge of the 
field. In replanting corn in a field infested with cut worms late plant- 
ing is advisable. A parasite is known to prey on the cutworm. A tiny 
larvae from the egg of a small fly proves fatal to the affected cutworm. 
THE SOD WEB WORM OR ROOT WEB WORM. (Several 
Species of "Crambus"). These caterpillars average about one- 
half inch in length when full grown, are pinkish red or brownish, 
and covered with rows of comparatively smooth dark spots, from the 
center of each of which springs a rather coarse hair. The injury done 
to corn is something like that inflicted by the cut worm, except that 
the web worm does not sever the entire stem, but eats a groove up 







PLATE III. 

Tlic Wliiie Grub; the beetle, egg, larva and pupa; 
enlarged two and one-half diameters. 



C0URTE8T OF PRaFESSOR S. A. FORBES. ILUtNOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



wiiitp: grubs 



229 



one side. The greedy larva feeds during the night and lives during 
the day in a little silk-lined tube about one inch below the surface. 
The larva does not pupate before winter, but hibernates in the silk- 
lined tube. In the spring its growth is completed. It then pupates 
and by June loth the imago is dropping eggs carelessly about in the 
grass. These hatch in from lo to 20 days, when the larva again 
appears. It is not definitely known whether the larvae change to 
moths and another generation is produced for hibernation, or wl"<?!ri;-r 
the first generation grows until autumn and then hibern?ito^. 

Prevention and Remedy. The above outline of the life cycle de- 
mands the early fall plowing' of sod which is to be used for corn the 
next year. But if the plowing has to be left until spring the web 
worm will be most disturbed if this operation is postponed until after 
May 25th. 

WHITE GRUB ( Lachnosterna rugosa). The white grub is a very 
difficult pest with which to deal because it attacks a number of vari- 
eties of plants. 

The eggs from which the larvae 
are hatched are laid chiefly in grass 
land, although occasionally they may 
be deposited in fields of corn. The 
adult female is a rather large, thick, 
short beetle, having hard wing cov- 
ers of a brownish color. They are 
commonly seen in the early summer 
flying about arc-lights, and are 
known as "June beetles" or "May 
beetles." These live but a short 
time. The males die soon after the 
sexes pair. The females begin lay- 
ing eggs in June, and by the first oj 
July have practically finished. These 
eggs are placed from an inch to 
four inches deep in the ground and 
hatch in from two to three weeks' 
time. 

The young grubs attack the roots 
of grass at once, and grow very rapidly during this first season. The 
following winter they hibernate in the same stage and live as larvae 
during the next summer until July, when they pupate. They exist in 
this state until the middle or latter part of August, when the adult 
form appears. The imago, or adult, usually remains right in its place 
of origin until early the next spring. Then it emerges as a "June 




ra rtiv 




The common Sod Web-worm 

(Crambus trisectus) 

Back and side views, much enlarged. 



230 



CORN 



beetle." The mating then begins and eggs are laid in June, completing 
the life cycle. 

The fact that the life history extends over almost three seasons 
makes its eradication that much more difficult. Sod is sometimes 
very seriously injured by these grubs. When the number of plants 
per acre is materially reduced, as when corn is planted on sod ground, 
the damage of the grubs is noticed to a greater extent. One grub 
attacking ea;ch hill of corn will show damage where the same number 
of grubs per acre on sod could not be noticed. Where the corn is 
killed outright, or has a dwarfed appearance, having a yellowish tinge 
throughout, the indications point toward the presence of the grub. 
When grubs are present the roots of the corn plant will be found to 
be very short and stubby. The plant may be slightly bent, due to the 
fact that the disabled roots are unable to hold stalk in an upright posi- 
tion. If indications point to the presence 
"^'^^^^^■^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ grubs and they are not readily 



found, they may be discovered by digging 
down a foot or two from the plant. Corn 
of different sizes is often attacked by the 
grub. There are several other species of 
Lachnosterna besides the genera cycloce- 
phala, which do damage to the corn plant. 




The common Sod Web-Woim. 

Adult. Slightly enlarged. 

( ( J ambus trisectus) 



Prevention and Remedy. Fall plowing is a very desirable and 
effective means of destroying many pupae and larvae. Sod that is 
badly infested, having been plowed in the fall, may be almost freed 
from grubs by turning in hogs. The first crop of corn should be kept 
as free from weeds as possible in order to prevent the adults from 
depositing eggs for a future brood. Clover is seldom injured by the 
white grub ; neither is the grass growing in the clover field. Pota- 
toes, strawberries and beets are often attacked; also young larches, 
evergreens and tender rooted shrubs and fruit and forest trees. One 
or two seasons of clover will eliminate the grub sufficiently to allow 
the planting of corn in comparative safety. 

CORN BILL BUG (Several species of the genus Sphenophorus.'^ 
Unlike the other pests of corn, the bill-bug represents the adult stage. 
That is, his activities are disastrous during the imago rather than 
larval stage. The damage done is measured by the number and size 
of beetles. Corn on sod land is most frequently affected. 

The corn bill-bugs vary in size and color, but most of them are a 
dull black. Their surfaces are pitted. They are snout beetles, having 




PLATE I\'. 
Corn Hill-Bugs and larva, with injured corn plant. 



f 0UHTF9T OF PROFESSOR S A FOH8F9, ICLtNO 8 STATE f NT0M01.0GI8T 



CORN BILL BUG AND CORN ROOT APHIS 231 

a pair of minute jaws situated on the end of this protrusion. The 
larvae of these beetles live on the roots of grass and are frequently 
seen embedded in the root bulbs of timothy, in coarse sedges, and in 
salt grass. The larva is white, rarely found in corn fields, and is with- 
out feet, having a hard head of a brown or blackish color. Pupating 
does not take place until fall, the winter being passed in the adult 
stage, and generally about the field where they first appeared. The 
bill-bug does not travel far. 

With the warm days of spring the bill-bug comes forth, ready to 
attack the young corn plant. It will generally climb the stalk and 
thrust its snout down in among the young leaves, often causing a 
very serious injury. These punctures may be noted as the plant 
grows as parallel holes running across the leaf. Each row of holes 
is made by a single puncture when the leaves are young and closely 
rolled together. When the stalk is young and tender the corn bill- 
bug will also bore into this portion of the plant. When doing this it 
works with head down. So intensely absorbed is the bill-bug when at 
work that not infrequently the plant may be removed from the field 
without the beetle ceasing its labors. 

The life cycle is very simple. The eggs are laid in May and June 
in the roots and stems of grasses. The larvae appear in June, July 
and August. Pupation occurs at once and the beetles come forth in 
the late summer or early fall. Hibernation takes place in the imago 
stage. 

Prevention and Remedy. Sod corn which is planted after the 
middle of June is rarely injured by the bill-bugs. Many farmers who 
have had some experience with this pest plant their sod land the last 
thing in the spring. There is a bill-bug, however, which is occasion- 
ally found in swampy places, that might attack the corn as late as 
July. All the species are much hindered in their activities by fall 
plowing. 

CORN ROOT APHIS (Aphis maidi-radids). The corn-root aphis 
is commonly known as the corn-root louse. Careful investigation 
has shown that this pest is increasing from year to year. The injury 
done by the aphis consists in sucking the liquid food from the grow- 
ing plant. Close examination reveals no outward injury from this 
source, but the plant will present a dwarfed appearance, especially in 
certain patches in the field, sometimes on low ground. The leaves 
will take on a yellowish or reddish cast, the lower ones being afifected 
first, and later the whole plant shows a lack of thrift and vigor. 

The adult aphis is bluish green in color. It can thus be distin- 



232 CORN 

guished from the grass louse, which is white with a blackish head, 
there being no appearance of green. The eggs are laid in the fall 
and the ants store them away over winter. The first hatching gen- 
erally takes place in the spring before the corn is planted, the young 
living for a time on the roots of weeds which are laid bare by the 
ants. Smartweed is especially liked by the young aphids. As soon 
as the young corn plant starts, the ants immediately remove the aphids 
from the roots of the weeds to the corn roots. The ants have been 
known to burrow hills of corn in advance and seize the winged aphids 
that would happen that way and bear them to their subterranean home 
on the roots of the corn plant. The first generation of the corn-root 
aphis is wingless, and is therefore confined to fields previously in 
corn. This and succeeding generations are asexual giving birth to the 
living young. The second generation consists both of winged and wing- 
less aphids. The winged aphids may travel to other fields, but they 
generally do not become sufficiently numerous to affect a field not in 
corn the previous year. It is generally November before those of the 
viviparious generation (those producing living young) are all dead. Af- 
ter this time the sexual generation is presented. These lay the eggs in 
the late fall ready for the ants to store away. In the spring the 
above outlined life history is repeated. It is estimated that each 
female will give birth to 12 or 15 young, although the life period 
of the first three generations is but 19 days. There are some 10 to 16 
generations in one season. 

The apparently disinterested guardianship of the ants is not en- 
tirely without profit. The aphis has been termed the "ant's cow," due 
to the fact that it excretes a sweet liquid called "honey dew" through 
the two small tubular projections situated on each side of the back 
near the caudal end. The ants are very fond of this liquid, which they 
obtain by tapping the aphids lightly on the back. The presence of 
ants about a hill of corn almost always means that the aphids are at 
work on the roots of the plant. 

Prevention and Remedy. Mo other crop is particularly liable to be 
injured by the corn-root aphis, with the exception, possibly, of broom 
corn and sorghum. An instance has been noted in Kansas where 
sorghum was badly infested. A rotation of crops is the only method 
by which a field can be relieved from the serious attacks of this pest. 
Inasmuch as no crops following corn are seriously injured by the 
lice there need be no fear in plowing up infested corn ground and 
sowing to some other cereal. Fall plowing and early spring plowing 
disturbs the homes of the ants and destroys large quantities of eggs 
of the aphis. Clean cultivation, especially on low ground, prevents 



m 




PLATE V. 

TiiK Corn Kout-Iawsk, (.l/>/i/s ///(i/t/Zrat/ic/s.) B, the common winjiless and A, the 
winged viviparous females; F, the pupa of tlie winufed female; C, the oviparous female, occuring 
in autumn and D, its eug, E, tlie worker of the rout-louse -.wn^Liisiits /ii<^tr iJi/wricanus.) 



COunlESV OF PROFESSOR S 



TE E^Tf MOLOGIST 



CHINCH BUG 233 

the deposition of eggs in such weeds and grasses as are commonly 
found in marshy places. Corn planted on ground not previously in- 
fested may be attacked by the winged generation, but no serious dam- 
age usually follows. 

THE CHINCH BUG (Blissus lencoptcrus). The injury due to 
the chinch bug varies from year to year. Some states have suffered 
some fifteen to twenty million dollars loss in a single year. Its 
ravages are worse during continued dry spells, and corn plants at- 
tacked by it present an exceedingly wilted appearance, corresponding 
exactly to what might be expected from continued drought. The sap 
may be completely drawn out of the growing plant by this sucking 
insect, the result being that whole fields will be flattened to the ground. 
Corn is especially liked and not uncommonly attacked by the chinch 
bug. Beginning on one side an army of these insects may lay low an 
entire field. 

The adult, which has passed the winter concealed under old rub- 
bish, comes forth in the spring very early. By the last of April the 
female begins to deposit eggs and continues laying throughout the 
month of May. These eggs are usually deposited at the base of 
young wheat plants, or of other small grains. By the middle of May 
the first eggs begin to hatch. The eggs being laid at no regular in- 
tervals, broods do not appear in order, but young are found in all 
stages of development. When it first hatches, the chinch bug is very 
red in color and exceedingly small. As it matures it goes through 
a process of moulting until the adult stage is reached at the time of 
the fourth moult. The adult has wings and winters over to lay the eggs 
the following spring. Its color varies, the head and thorax being 
black, and a black blotch is seen at the middle of each side. The 
center of the back presents a white cross. The old chinch bugs which 
winter over are most all gone by the middle of June. The eggs of 
the second generation are generally laid in the corn field at the base 
of any weeds or grass growing in the row. The young chinch bug 
of the first generation feeds upon the small grain and after the fields 
are harvested the corn fields are more likely to be attacked. The 
young of the generation feeds for a time upon the weeds and grass, 

then attacks the corn directly. 

Prevention and Remedy. The rise and fall of a siege of chinch 
bugs varies, the period of annual increase being longer than the per- 
iod of decline. They may get more numerous continually for three 
or four years, and then suddenly disappear. Premises kept free from 
rubbish are less inviting as wintering quarters for the adult bugs 
which hibernate and lay the eggs the following spring. To prevent 



234 CORN 

the onward march of the chinch bug, a strip about lo feet wide may be 
plowed between the corn and the infested field. A part of this, at 
least three feet in width, should be very finely pulverized. A furrow 
should then be made in this pulverized strip, making the sides as 
vertical as possible. In the bottom of this eight-inch furrow, at in- 
tervals of lo feet, dig holes at least two feet deep. As the line of 
march is intercepted by this ditch the invaders fall to the bottom, are 
unable to climb the other side, and finally fall into deeper holes. A 
short log may be dragged up and down this trench by a horse, thus 
destroying the pests as they enter. Kerosene poured upon the bugs 
in the deeper holes kills them effectively. Another resort is to place 
a line of tar between the first trench and the corn field. If this is 
renewed twice or three times daily it is very effective. 

When the chinch bugs are on the plants they may be destroyed 
by spraying with kerosene emulsion made as follows : 

Dissolve half pound of soap (hard or soft) in a gallon of water 
by boiling; then remove from stove and stir thoroughly; add two 
gallons of kerosene; mix thoroughly by pumping this fluid back' 
into itself by means of a common spray pump. Before application 
add fifteen quarts of water to each quart of mixture. This spray 
should be applied before ten o'clock in the morning, if possible. 
Enough should be applied so that the insects will be washed off and 
will be seen floating in the emulsion at the base of the plant. As an 
economical process this cannot be recommended on a large scale. 

ARMY WORM (HeliophUa unipuncta) The army worm be- 
longs to a large family of insects known as the Noctuidae. Grass 
lands being its natural home, it is present to a limited extent every 
year. The mature insects are dull brown moths, having a peculiar 
white spot in the center of each anterior wing, from whence comes 
the name "unipuncta/' The body is about three-fourths of an inch 
in length in the adult. The eggs, which are usually laid in the termi- 
nal leaf sheath of grasses and grains, are small, globular, and white. 
Dr. Riley* found eggs deposited in strawstack bottoms, hay ricks, old 
corn shocks, and even two-year-old corn stalks lying on the ground 
in the meadow. His estimate of a single female laying from 500 to 
700 eggs accounts for the rapid increase of the worms under favorable 
conditions. These eggs hatch in from 8 to 10 days. After feed- 
ing on anything of succulence about it, the larva is full grown in 
25 to 30 days, attaining a length of i 1-2 inches. When young they 
travel Hke a measuring worm, are dark, naked caterpillars with longi- 
tudinal stripes running the full length of the body. A very marked 

*U. S. Department of Agriculture Report 18S1-1882, P. 90-91. 




platp: \i. 

The Chinch-bug; five stages of development and the egg. 



COllRTtSY OF PROFES^tDR s A. FORBES. ULIIOIS STATE E NTOMOLOOIST 



STALK BORER 235 

broad stripe on each side is characteristic. The pupa stage, which 
lasts about 2 weeks, is passed in rubbish on the ground. The imago 
or adult comes forth and begins to lay eggs again in 6 to 8 
days. This, in all, gives 7 to 8 weeks for the life cycle in 
midsummer. There are usually from 2 to 3 broods each year 
in the northern states. The last brood hibernates either as larvae or 
pupae. The moths appear very early the next spring. 

Prevention and Remedy. Some bacterial diseases attack the lar- 
vae. Insect parasites destroy great numbers, yet the pest must be 
combated. If the worms are marching toward a field, a deep furrow 
in front of them will capture a great many. Holes should be dug 
in the furrow every 10 or 15 feet. The worms after falling into these 
holes may be killed by kerosene. In pasture lands, which are smooth, 
the caterpillars may be crushed by a heavy roller. 

STALK BORER (Papaipenia nitela). This caterpillar is very well 
known. It is sometimes called the "Heart Worm" because of its 
characteristic attacks, boring as it does into the heart of the stem. 
It is from an inch to an inch and a quarter long when matured, vary- 
ing from a purplish brown to a brownish white in color, according 
to age. It may be told by the white stripes which it bears. These 
are five in number, one extending along the entire center of the back 
with two on each side. The stripes on the sides are broken, there 
being none on the first four segments of the abdomen. This gives 
it the appearance of being pinched or injured. The eggs which pro- 
duce these larvae have not as yet been found, but it is commonly be- 
lieved that the eggs are laid in the fall in grass land, and that these 
hatch during the same fall or the next spring. When first hatched, 
the larvae live upon the weeds and grasses which are at hand. When 
they attack these it is readily noticed, because the tops of the plant 
turn to a whitish color, due to the entrance of the larvae within the 
stem. The rest of the plant may remain green. This is not an un- 
common sight along the roadsides. As the worm grows in size it 
looks for new feeding ground where it may find thicker stemmed 
plants upon which to feed, and in this respect it seems not to be 
particular. It attacks wheat, oats, timothy, potatoes, tomatoes, rhu- 
barb, and many other woody stemmed plants. 

Corn is attacked generally when it is from 2 to 15 inches high. 
A small hole will be noticed in the corn stalk where the stalk borer 
entered. The burrow within the stem runs upward from this entrance 
varying in size with the maturing of the larvae. When the cater- 
pillar is full grown it soon pupates generally within the last plant 



236 



CORN 



attacked. This commonly occurs below the opening at which it en- 
tered. The moth is rather mouse colored and flies by night. 

Prevention and Remedy. When a corn plant is attacked by a 
stalk borer, there is no remedy that can be applied that will success- 
fully combat the intruder without doing injury to the plant itself. 
The place of eradication is where the larvae first appear, namely, in 
grassy places. Here they may be discovered by the tops of the grass 
attacked turning whitish in color and dying. This grass should be 
mowed immediately and burned or fed to stock. It is generally the 
outer borders of the corn fields that are injured by the stalk borer. 
The damage done to the corn fields is limited. Whole fields are not 
attacked by the stalk borer as in the case of the other corn pests, al- 
though it is known to have destroyed 15 acres at Elmira, Illinois in 
a single season. In Greene County, Iowa, in 1908, a 3 acre piece 
of corn was ruined by the ravages of this worm. 




Stalk-borer (Hydroecia 7iitela) a, adult; b, half-grown 
larva ; c, mature larva in burrow ; d, side of one of its 
segments; a, pupa. All slightly enlarged. 



THE NORTHERN CORN ROOT WORM.* This little larva, or 
worm, is about two-fifths of an inch long, and approaches a pin in 
thickness. It is white, with the exception of its head, the top of the 
first segment, and a spot on the last segment, which are of a brown- 
ish color. 



*This investigation carried on by E. 
Bewmaa, 



P. Humbert under the personal supervision of M. L. 




PLATE VII. 
The Army-worn, witli pupa, imnh, and egg. 

eoURTESrOF PROFESSOR S. A. F0R8ES. ILLINOIS ST.T. ENTOMOLOGIST. 



(()R\ KOOI" WORM 237 

Life History.** The eggs from which this larva comes are laid in 
the ground, an inch or more beneath the surface, and rarely outside 
of the corn field. Here they remain during winter awaiting the warm 
davs of early summer, and about the middle of June the worm comes 
forth in search of what is apparently its only food, the roots of the 
corn plant. The corn roots are at once attacked, the larvae con- 
cealing themselves within, not burrowing through the middle of the 
root, but in a spiral, longitudinal direction in the woody portion which 
lies just beneath the outer covering. This burrowing causes the roots 
to decay and die. There is every evidence to lead us to believe that 
the corn-root worm does not live on the roots of clover, timothy, oats, 
wheat, barley or rye ; although observations in Kansas indicate that 
the roots of sorghum afford a home for the larvae. 

Some of the corn-root worms will have reached maturity by the 
latter part of June. Others will be found working in the corn roots 
as late as August. When the larvae have reached maturity, they leave 
the roots of the corn, but remain in the ground about them and begin 
to pupate, the worm transforming into the adult or beetle. Soon 
small grass-green beetles will be seen, about one-fourth of an inch 
in length, which come forth from the pupa and are found feeding 
upon the silks; also upon the pollen grains which have fallen upon 
the leaves of the plant, generally about the axis. 

The beetles represent the adult stage. They do very little damage 
to the plant, but may be seen throughout the months of August and 
September, and often during October. During the latter part of 
September and the first part of October, most of the female beetles 
will have buried themselves in the ground a short distance from the 
hill of corn. They will then deposit their eggs, which the following 
spring will hatch out into the corn-root worms. Seldom are the eggs 
deposited outside of the corn field. In fact, it may be said that the 
corn-root worm is dependent for its food upon the roots of the corn 
plant. 

How Its Injury Is Noticed. The corn-root worm may be found 
in the corn field in spots and can be detected in the early part of the 
season by the appearance of the corn, showing a tendency to grow 
less rapidly, although it may keep green, due to the fact that the root 
system has not been damaged to such an extent but that some nourish- 
ment can be afforded the plant. Again, where the ground has been 
in corn several years, it is not uncommon to find that the entire field 
presents a dwarfed appearance throughout the season. It fails to 
produce more than nubbins, many of the stalks being entirely barren, 

**See Eighteenth Report of Illinois State Entomologist, by Forbes. 



238 



CORN 





FIG. A 



FIG. C 




. a 






ii'r 



▼' 



FiG. B 



/ 



P" 



FIG D 



CHARLOTTE M KING ARTIST 



PLATE VIII. 

Corn Root Wokm, iDiabrotica /oiiohor/iis.) A, Beetle; B, Pupa; C. Larva; I), Larva 
in Corn Root. 



CORN ROOT WORM 239 

due to the decaying and rotting of the root system, which is always 
the case where the roots have been attacked. In this condition, the 
roots are unable to support the plant with proper nourishment for 
maintaining the growth of the stalk, and at the same time for putting 
forth an ear. Due to the lack of support necessarily brought about 
through the injury to the root system, the plants are very easily top- 
pled over, and are found lying in all directions, especially after a hard 
rain. Should there be a brisk breeze whole fields are often laid low 
(See page 246), when if it were not for the corn-root worms they 
would not have shown the effect in the least. 

When corn that has not been affected by the corn-root worm has 
been blown down, it is usually found that if the ground is firm, the 
corn stalk is broken some distance above the surface. The corn roots 
remain intact, that portion of the stalk below the break remaining 
in an upright position. When the corn-root worms have been work- 
ing on the corn, this breaking of the stem does not occur. The whole 
plant falls. The stubby roots may often be seen protruding from the 
dirt about them, and the top of -the plant endeavoring to take an up- 
right position, as shown in picture (page 246). 

When the ground has been in corn but one year the damage will 
not be particularly apparent the year following. Quite frequently the 
presence of the corn-root worm is not suspected until the small grass- 
green beetles are found upon the plant. These beetles begin coming 
forth about the time, or a little before the plant puts forth its shoots 
and tassels, and will be found feeding on the silks and pollen. It 
is very common to find fields which are termed "old" and "run out" 
so that they will not produce corn, which are nothing more or less 
than lands which are suffering from the ravages of the corn-root worm. 

The hills of corn as shown on page 238 represent the average of 
the fields from which the samples were taken. Each bundle in the 
picture is composed of four representative hills from fields which had 
been in corn i, 2, 3, and 4 years respectively. The 4 hills appear 
separately in the following cuts. The great variation in the strength 
ul the root system and the number of corn-root worms taken from 
nills representing ground in corn for the first, second, third, and 
fourth years will be noted. Each hill was secured by putting a 
12-inch spade in the ground full length around the entire hill at a 
radius of 12 inches, after which the plants were pulled up. Then 
the roots were placed upon a sheet; also the loose dirt out of the hole. 
This experiment was begun July 26, 1906. Many of the larvae having 
left the roots and entered into the pupa stage, were found in the loose 
dirt. 



24§ 



CORN 




FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOR THE FIRST YEAR. 

Note the extensive root development. There was one corn root worm. The ground 
v^as in clover the previous year. 



CORN ROOT WORM 



241 




FOUR HILLS FROM GROUND IN CORN FOR THE SECOND YEAR 



Note a lighter root development. Twenty-four corn root worms were taken from 

the four hills. 



242 



CORN 



The extensive development of the roots of these plants (page 240) 
is to be especially noted in contrast with those in the following illus- 
trations, especially on pages 242 and 243. It is very uncommon to find 




^Ci 


t.sC\ 


«>s«i 


<ioO, 




isr -< 


jC V 


-«;>f 


- 


.,fc 


•? * 

O (, 


>l 






^^3. 


>s§ 






«i5 






^ 


t* 


1 



FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOR THE THIRD YEAK. 
Number of corn root worms in each hill, numbered from left to right, 65 70, 31 
and 83 worms respectively. 

corn-root worms in ground that is in corn for the first year. The one 
corn-root worm can only be accounted for by the fact that this field 
was but a short distance from one that had been in corn for 4 
years, a beetle having strayed to the nearby field before she had de- 
posited all her eggs. 

It should be noted that the number of the corn-root worms is in- 
creasing very rapidly as the number of years increase that the ground 
has been in corn; also, the plants are getting much smaller and the 
extent of root system is being very noticeably and seriously reduced. 



CORN ROOT WORM 



243 



On page 246 the rurvaturc <>\ tlu' stalks will be noted, the root 
system having been sufficient up to the present time to maintain a 
fairly vigorous growth in stalk, but not sufficient to maintain the 
weight of the stalk, which is therefore bending over. The roots were 



■ I I II. II ■■i | i . i4 "u »* li ■ j i* :< | f i 4l i ||*J' ' i 1^ '' I' .il u 'l ""*' 



,. .T'!^,..^ 



1 ^\.i ^V/ I H— r 



~ *~^ — : — 1 — y i!j" ' r ~ — vy 




x''l:'4' 1.", \ ] f .i;-^j irja3 








■■Vfi 




FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOURTH YEAR. 

Number of corn root worms taken from each hill, as numbered from left to right is 161, 
150, 125 and 161, respectively. Note the stubby roots and the large number of corn 
root worms found in each hill. (Ground in alfalfa five years before.) 



found to be badly lacerated, many of them having rotted ofif entirely. 
The plants were very backward in sending forth shoots, resulting in 
the production of ears of inferior size. 

The plants are seen to be very much dwarfed, the corn-root worm 
having almost completely destroyed the root system ; so much so 



244 CORN 

that the plants have made a very weak growth. It could not be 
expected that they would produce more than nubbins. The amount 
of nourishment which the roots have furnished these plants has been 
necessarily so small that even a fair sized plant has not been pro- 
duced. Some of the plants present an erect appearance, because there 
was not sufficient weight in the stalk to cause them to topple over. 

This shows that the best results cannot be had by continual crop- 
ping with corn. They may be obtained only by practicing a proper 
system of rotation. After the ground has been in corn for the second 
year it is subject to serious ravages by the corn-root worms, which 
result in a very noticeable weakening in the corn plants and a very 
material decrease in the yield of corn per acre, due to the lacerating 
and decaying of the root system. 

The injury done by the corn-root worm becomes very apparent 
after a wind or heavy rain, especially in fields which have been in 
corn for 3 and 4 years or more. 

Cuts on pages 245 and 246 represent ground in corn for the first, 
second, third, and fourth years, respectively, and also the fields from 
\vhich the representative hills were taken, as shown in preceding 
pages. 

From 125 to 161 corn-root worms were found to the hill. The 
roots were badly lacerated and decayed, causing the whole plant to 
fall. The stubby ends of the roots could be seen protruding from 
the dirt about them. 

Yield. It is to be expected that the yield of corn per acre would 
necessarily vary in fields where continuous cropping of corn had been 
practiced. The following contrast will be noted in the yield of corn 
per acre on ground in corn for the first and fourth years, respectively: 

First year, from clover sod, 72.4 bushels 

Fourth year, from alfalfa sod* 45.1 bushels 

From the above it will be seen that the difference in the yield ci 
corn on ground in corn for the first year from that of ground in corn 
for the fourth year, was 27.3 bushels per acre, or 60 per cent more 
corn in favor of the former. 

Remedy. — Rotation of Crops. Nothing can be done to help 
corn that is attacked by the corn-root worm, but due to the fact that 
this worm lives entirely upon the roots of the corn plant, 
it is simple to combat them, a rotation of crops being sufficient. The 
ground which is infested with the corn-root worms which hatch out 
next spring will die — simply starve to death. The best results will 

* Alfalfa, a legume, enriches the soil the same as clever. 




PLATE IX. 

The Corn Worm: light and dark individuals, pupa, moth, and egg, with 
Injured ear of corn. 



COURTESY OF PROFESSOR 9 A FORBES, ItCINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST 



CORN ROOl' WORM 



245 




The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the first year. Xnit how 
straight the plants are. (Ground was in clover the previous j'ear.) 







The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the second 3ear. Effect of 
wind and rain is a little more noticeable, but only in a comparatively few plants. 



246 



CORN 




'I'lie above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the third year. 




The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the fourth year. 
(Ground in alfalfa five years before.) 




PLATE X. 

The Atigoumois Grain Moth: larva, pupa, moth, and ejrg, with injured 
kernel and ear of corn. 



COURTESY OF PROFESSOR S A FORBES ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST 



WORK OK CORN ROOT WORM 347 

be had by keeping the ground in corn but for two years in succession 
and then rotating with small grains and legumes. By practicing a 
proper system of crop rotation, the ground will be more productive. 
This is also the very best method of combating all insect pests so 
injurious to our farm crops. 

THE GRASSHOPPER (Acrididae). The injury to corn due to 
hoppers is usually confined to the border rows near a pasture or 
meadow. The grasshoppers devour the silks and eat away the husks, 
thus preventing pollination. The lower leaves may be consumed in 
some cases. The seriousness of this pest is more marked in certain 
years. The "grasshopper dozer" has proved a very effective means 
of eradication. This consists of a shallow pan filled with kerosene 
placed upon a sled or low wheels and protected in the rear by an up- 
right canvas. The molested grasshoppers jumping against this can- 
vas drop immediately into the kerosene and are killed. 

*"The Criddle Mixture has proved efifective for poisoning grass- 
hoppers in Illinois and in Canada. This mixture is composed of one 
part, by measurement, of paris green to 120 parts of horse droppings, 
preferably fresh ; or about a gound of paris green to half a kerosene 
barrel of the droppings, with a pound of salt in addition if the material 
is not fresh." 

THE EAR WORM (Heliothis armiger). The ear worm is also 
known as the corn worm, cotton boll-worm, tomato worm, and to- 
bacco bud worm. It varies in color from a light green to a brown 
with light and dark stripes running lengthwise of the body. Its legs 
are dark, head yellow, body slender and nearly hairless. It is noticed 
most especially when feeding on the corn ear just beneath the husks. 
This worm may feed on the leaves by making small holes here and 
there. Early in the season it feeds on garden truck. The furrow 
made on the ear of corn begins at a round hole in the husk and extends 
spirally in a longitudinal direction, often reaching half way down the 
ear. Decay usually sets in at once and the damage is accelerated in 
this manner. Sweet corn is most commonly infested. 

There are 3 generations in a single season. They hibernate 
in the pupa stage. The moth comes forth in early April and soon 
begins to lay eggs. Each female may produce from 200 to 300. The 
eggs soon hatch and the caterpillars reach their maturity in 3 
weeks, after passing through six moults. Then they pupate. Three 
generations go through this cycle in one season. The larvae of the 

*Page 395 of Bulletin 95 of Illinois. 



248 CORN 

iirst generation live chiefly on the leaves and young shoots of the corn 
plant ; the larvae of the second generation live in the tassels, silks, 
and young ears ; while the larvae of the third generation will attack the 
maturing ears. 

Prevention and Remedy. This pest has not as yet been success- 
fully combated. Fall plowing destroys a great many of the pupae, 
in which stage hibernation occurs. Where corn follows corn such a 
practice cannot be followed except in a limited way. The Kentucky 
Experiment Station has conducted experiments with poisons in com- 
bating the ear worm, but the result of their work does not justify the 
use of such a treatment. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED CORN 

THE ANGUMOIS GRAIN MOTH (Sitotroga cerealella). The 
adult is a small, light-gray moth, with a wing expanse of one- 
half inch. The eggs are of a pale red color. The larva which has 
a brown head, tapers gradually, being covered with numerous 
hairs. The pupa is of a darker brown color. The moth deposits the 
egg on the grains of corn or wheat, either in the field or in the granary, 
usually the latter. The eggs are laid between the rows of corn. In 
4 or 5 days the larva hatches out and lives upon the germ and 
starchy part of the kernel. In 5 weeks it has attained its growth. 
It then burrows to the crown of the kernel, makes an opening, seals 
it over, and pupates for a few days. The adult comes out through 
this opening and the life cycle is complete, requiring less than 6 
weeks. The length of time depends upon the temperature. Warm 
spring days bring out the imagos very rapidly. 

Prevention and Remedy. The careful removal of all refuse and 
old corn each year during the summer will prevent the moths from 
having anything upon which to deposit their eggs. Carbon-bisulphide 
(CS2), a colorless, very volatile liquid, is the most effective means 
of destruction of the moths. This should never be breathed by man 
or other animals, and a lighted match should never be brought in 
contact with the gas. In a moderately tight bin one pound of the 
bisulphide will effectively fumigate one hundred bushels of grain. The 
compound vaporizes rapidly, and being heavier than air, it soon sinks 
and becomes thoroughly diffused throughout the bin. If the sulphide 
is simply placed in shallow pans on top of the grain the results will 
be accomplished. Where seed is racked or hung up, the pans must 
be elevated above the grain which is to be fumigated. Several ap- 
plications may be necessary to destroy all the moths as they appear 




PLATE XI. 
The common grain Weevils and lar\ce. 



COURTESY OF PROFESSOR S *. FORBES. ILtlNOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST 



GRAIN WEEVIL ' 249 

from time to time. Grain which has been fumigated is not injurious 
for feeding or seeding purposes. 

THE GRAIN WEEVIL (Calandra granaria). The grain weevil 
has a hard body of a uniform chestnut brown color. The beetle 
is short, stout-bodied, and about one-seventh of an inch long. The 
thorax is marked with punctures arranged longitudinally. The eggs 
are deposited singly in the grain. The female punctures the grain 
with its snout and in this cavity places its egg. The larva comes 
forth in a few days, develops in the grain, and emerges as an adult. 
The life cycle requires about 40 days. 

Treatment similar to that for the grain moth will eradicate the 
grain weevil. However, such treatment must be much more thor- 
ough. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Corn Bill Bugs and Root Louse, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 259. 

Corn Smut, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 69. 

Corn Root Worms, 

U. S. Department (Bureau of Entomology) Circular 59. 

Sweet Corn (Bacterial Disease of). 

New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 130. 

Corn Smut, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 62. 
Indian Corn, The More Important Insect Injuries to, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 95. 
Smut of Indian Corn, 

Ohio Bulletin No. 10. 
The Corn Bill Bugs in Illinois, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 79. 
Field Experiments and Observations on Insects Injurious to 
Indian Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 104. 
The Slender Seed Corn Ground Beetle, 

U. S. Department of Entomology, Circular No. 78. 

Insect Injuries to the Seed and Roots of Corn, 
Illinois Bulletin No. 44. 
Iowa Circular No. 21. 
Illinois Bulletin No. 133. 



CHAPTER XII 



THE MARKETING OF CORN 



1. HOME MARKETS 



With the increase of dairying and stock feeding will come a 
corresponding increase in home consumption of corn. Tenants in 
general do not feed their crops on the farm. Farmers who recognize 
that the fertility of the soil can be maintained by keeping live stock 
and returning the crops to the land in the form of manure, are now 
raising a sufficient number of hogs along with a few cattle to consume 
everything which is produced. Large returns in pork and beef usually 
accompany this practice. Furthermore, it has the advantage of being 
permanent and insures crops for the future. 

On the other hand, the commercial market has quoted corn at 
such high figures for the past few years that the cattle feeders who 
depend upon buying their corn have been forced to discontinue opera- 
tions. This has been augmented by a prevailing state of affairs 
whereby the feeder usually has to pay two or three cents more than 
the market price in order to purchase any corn whatever. In dis- 
tricts where cattle and sheep feeding are carried on, the corn grower 
has a better market for his crop than in sections where every bushel 
is shipped out. 

Often where growers live within a few miles of the cattle feeder. 
the corn is hauled directly from the field to the buyers' cribs. A max- 
im of feeders is "buy when it is for sale." Renters who have little 
capital and must pay their rent at the first of the year, usually sell 
during the month of December. The man who can hold his corn, if 
it is of good quality, in general makes more money. *A factor of at 
least 18 per cent shrinkage must be considered however. 

The demand for corn in the towns near the grower is only a small 
factor. Some farmers have a regular trade with liverymen, teamsters, 
and feed stores. A good quality is usually desired by these buyers. 
Small mills which grind "chop" for consumption in the city buy a 
limited amount. Cornmeal mills, though located in a corn growing 

*18.2 per cent shrinkage result of tests at Iowa Experiment Station. 



COMMKRCIAI, MARKETING 251 

section, usually buy of the elevators, because the grain is more uni- 
formly graded and cleaned. 

Local markets are quoted in the county papers. Prices are con- 
trolled by the commercial market quotations, by the people and by 
the supply and demand on a particular day or during a week. Dur- 
ing the busy planting or cultivating season, when the farmers cannot 
leave their fields, the local corn markets often rise as much as five 
cents per bushel. Saturday is usually a day of low prices, because the 
farmers, during the slack season especially, bring in a load of corn 
when coming after groceries. 

II. COMMERCIAL MARKETING 

Any discussion of the subject of corn would be incomplete which 
did not also give some attention to the distribution of this crop. Of 
the total amount of corn produced in the United States in 1914 
(2,672,804,000 bushels), nearly 20 per cent (498,285.000 bushels) was 
shipped out of the county where grown. The amount of corn handled 
each year by the elevators varies with the surplus and the demand 
for corn as a raw material for factories. The surj^risingly large per- 
centage of the crop which is shipped out of the counties where grown, 
indicates the growing demand of the glucose factories and distilleries. 
The practice of shipping corn off the farm is to be severely criticized, 
considered from the standpoint of permanent maintenance of agricul- 
tural prosperity. 

SHIPMENT OF CORN OUT OF COUNTY WHERE GROWN 

The following figures show what per cent of the corn crop of the 
United States was shipped out of the county where grown for the years 
1900 to 1914, inclusive: 

TABLE NO. 54 
CORN SHIPPED OUT OF COUNTY WHERE GROWN— 1900-1914 INCLUSIVE. 

1900 22.7 per cent 1908 21.3 per cent 

190r^ 10.0 per cent 1909 24.9 per cent 

1902 22.1 per cent 1910 22.9 per cent 

1903 18.7 per cent 1911 20.4 per cent 

1904 22.3 per cent 1912 21.8 per cent 

1905 25.0 per cent 1913 17.2 per cent 

1906 23.2 per cent 1914 18.7 per cent 

1907 18.0 per cent 

*Very dry year. 



252 



CORN 



The following table shows the average per cent of corn shipped 
out of the county where grown for a ten-year period. 

TABLE NO. 55 

SHOWING PER CENT OF CORN CROP SHIPPED OUT OF COUNTIES 

WHERE GROWN, BY STATES 



State 



10-year Average State 



10-year Average 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 1 

Rhode Island i 

Connecticut 1 

New York 2 

New Jersey 15 

Pennsylvania 6 

Delaware 38 

Maryland 29 

Virginia 10 

West Virginia 5 

North Carolina 4 

South Carolina 3 

Georgia 3 

Florida 3 

Ohio 24 

Indiana 32 

Illinois 45 

Michigan 6 

Wisconsin 3 

Minnesota 14 

Iowa 24 

United States 



Missouri 12 

North Dakota 2 

South Dakota 26 

Nebraska 37 

Kansas 22 

Kentucky 11 

Tennessee 16 

Alabama 3 

Mississippi 3 

Louisiana 6 

Texas 9 

Oklahoma 23 

Arkansas 4 

Montana 2 

Wyommg 

Colorado 9 

New Mexico 5 

Arizona 5 

Utah 3 

Nevada 

Idaho 2 

Washington 4 

Oregon 2 

California . 19 

21.9 



TABLE NO. 56 

PERCENTAGE OF CORN IN THE HANDS OF FARMERS 

March 1, 1901 to 1915, inclusive 



1901 36.9 per cent 

190?-,- 29.1 per cent 

1903 41.6 per cent 

1904 37.4 per cent 

1905 38.7 per cent 

1906 40.9 per cent 

1907 44.3 per cent 



1908 37.1 per cent 

1909 39.3 per cent 

1910 38.3 per cent 

1911 40.4 per cent 

1912 34.9 per cent 

1913 41.3 per cent 

1914 35.4 per cent 

1915 34.1 per cent 



CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS 253 

It is seen that in Illinois and South Dakota the greatest movement 
of the corn crop occurs. The average for the entire United States was 
21.9 per cent. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has made inquiries 
concerning the shipment of corn out of counties where grown for the 
past thirty years. They report that there has been a gradual increase 
in the portion of the corn crop so handled. Considering the past three 
decades it is stated that in the eighties 16.9 per cent of the corn crop 
was shipped out of the counties where grown ; in the nineties 19.2 
per cent ; and in the last decade 21.9 per cent of the crop. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS. 

The markets which distribute the surplus corn of the United States 
may be classified as (1) primary, (2) terminal, (3) terminal-export, 
and (4) export. 

A primary market is defined as the first nearby market to which 
grain can be shipped and which serves as the first market to which 
grain can come. This does not properly include the country town ele- 
vators which first receive the grain from the surrounding territory. 
In the annual report of the Chicago Board of Trade, the following are 
given as "primary markets": Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, 
Duluth, St. Louis, Toledo, Detroit, Kansas City, Peoria, Omaha, Cin- 
cinnati and Indianapolis. Grain is inspected at these points. Several 
of these markets are also terminal markets. 

A terminal market is one which serves as a transfer point for grain 
which has been received and inspected previously in a primary market. 
In the Price Current Grain Reporter, a large number of the principal 
cities are included in the list of terminal markets. Boston is clearly a 
terminal market because New England shippers send no grain to 
Boston for inspection. However, Boston is also considered a terminal- 
export market, for considerable grain is exported from that point. 
Since very little corn from this country is exported, we are more 
especially concerned with the initial, primary and terminal markets. 

Grain Elevators. Considering first the small shipping points it was 
estimated in June, 1914* that there were 16,033 regular grain elevators 
in the United States. Of this number 6,459 were operated by line 
companies, 2,033 were operated by farmers and 7.505 by independent 
companies. 

*Grain Dealer's Journal. 



254 CORN 

Other states than those given below do not oi)erate extensively 
through grain elevators. They handle grain in bags, warehouses and 
cribs. 

TABLE NO. 57 

DISTRIBUTION OF GRAIN ELEVATORS 

Line Companies Elevators Farmers Independents 

Indiana 299 53 763 

IlHnois 522 269 1400 

Iowa 452 337 969 

Kansas 417 146 771 

Ohio 206 41 842 

Missouri 130 10 503 

Wisconsin 273 38 499 

Michigan 224 25 445 

Minnesota 1040 304 326 

North Dakota 1264 390 310 

South Dakota 651 201 350 

Montana 167 55 79 

Nebraska 850 164 246 

6495 2033 7505 



COST OF HANDLING GRAIN THROUGH ELEVATORS. 

An accurate account of the cost of handling grain through a mod- 
ern elevator is given by Mr. G. J. Railsback of Ashland, Nebraska, in 
the Price Current Grain Reporter, April 7, 1915. This shows the 
average yearly expense taken from a seven-year record. 



TABLE NO. 58 
SHOWING COST OF HANDLING GRAIN THROUGH ELEVATORS. 





Bushels 


Average Ycarl; 
Value 


(- Purchases 
Bushels 


Average 
Shrinkage 
Cost 


Corn 

Oats _ _ 


96,743 

4,171 


$50,949.00 

1,432.00 

31,121.00 


619 

33 

437 

1,089 


$327.72 
12.80 


Wheat 


36,932 


380.13 


Total __ 


.___$137,846 


$83,502.00 


$720.65 


Table continued 


next page. 









MANAGER OF LOCAL ELEVATOR 255 

TABLE NO. 58— Coiiiiiuied 
AVI'.KACE YEARLY EXPENSE 

Salary and incidental expense $1,157.70 

General expense 432.16 

Tax 64.45 

Insurance 60.00 

Shrinkage, average 1,089 bushels 720.65 

1-12 of average paid grain, $6,958 at 6% 417.51 

Interest on investment, elevator, at 6% 480.00 

Total $3,332.47 

Cost of handling 137,846 bushels of grain, $3,332.47 or 2.4c per bushel. 

At another elevator owned by the same people the average cost was 

2.57 cents per bushel for handling the grain. 

In Grain Dealers Journal dated August 25, 1914, Mr. H. C. Roberts, 
manager of the Farmer's Elevator Go., Illiopolis, 111., estimates the 
cost of handling grain at 2.89 cents per bushel. Mr. E. B. Conover, 
manager of a grain company at Springfield, 111., in an itemized state- 
ment gives the cost at 4.65 cents per bushel. The average cost of 
handling grain may be roughly estimated at about three cents per 
bushel. 

Qualifications of Manager of Local Elevator. (1) The manager 
should be a good judge of commercial grades. Experience and ob- 
servation will teach him the grading of corn as indicated by its color, 
moisture content, and amount of dirt present. 

(2) An understanding of the meaning of market quotations is nec- 
essary for an intelligent interpretation of market reports. Familiarity 
with steps in the shipment of consignments will enable him to better 
appreciate the need of lining cars before loading. A knowledge of 
railroad rates and the details of car ordering will often do away with 
shortage of shipping facilities at the time of a good market. 

(3) Some education in regard to bookkeeping and banking will 
stand the manager in hand as his business grows. The margin at 
present on shipments of grain demands close figuring to insure profits. 

(4) The manager should be the progressive man of the locality. 
His opinion upon the market should be respected by the shippers and 
farmers. His interest in the farming community should be substan- 
tial in the way of promoting corn and small grain exhibits, besides in- 
troducing new seed and advocating improved varieties. 



256 . CORN 

Line Elevator Systems. A line elevator system consists of coun- 
try elevators at various stations frequently along one railroad line. 
■ The number of elevators owned by a single company has been know^n 
to be as great as six hundred. 

Almost every town along the lines of railroad in the western part 
of the corn belt has a line elevator. For example : Nye, Schneider, 
Fowler Company have built along the Elkhorn division of the Chicago 
& Northwestern Railway in Nebraska, while Van Dusen holds the 
branch lines of the same road in South Dakota. The Updyke Grain 
Company owns a line of elevators parallel with the Union Pacific. On 
the B. & M. Ferguson buys in the principal districts. 

These companies usually build quite large elevators to facilitate ex- 
tensive storing. Cribs for ear corn are often erected near the eleva- 
tor. During the husking season, farmers within a radius of several 
miles haul direct from the field to these cribs. In the early winter, 
shelled corn taken from open cribs and piles on the ground begins to 
come into the elevator. Corn from good cribs appears a little later, 
depending upon the prices and the financial condition of the grower. 
This corn, if it be dry and of good quality, is held in storage. Then 
the representative of the company, knowing how much corn they have 
on hand throughout the state or states, and knowing, too, how much 
the corn has cost, goes to the Chicago Board of Trade. Here he 
deals in futures, making a practice of selling on a high market and 
buying at a price below the original cost of the corn on hand. 

Independent Elevators. Independent elevators are individuals, 
partnerships or corporations owning one or at most only a few ele- 
vators. The growth of the independent or private elevator company 
has been marked within recent years, especially in the western corn- 
growing states. Men of means in the different localities have entered 
into this field. Being acquainted with the growers in a given com- 
munity, lumber merchants and coal dealers have erected elevators 
and begun buying grain. Competitive bidding with the older elevator 
companies places these companies in a favorable light with the 
farmers. 

^Farmers' Co-operative Elevators. A farmers' co-operative ele- 
vator means a corporation made up of stockholders who are chiefly 
farmers. Each society is incorporated under the laws of the state and 
is governed by a constitution and by-laws, enforced by the officers of 
the organization. 

*Account taken from American Co-operative Journal, on History of the Farmers' Elevator. 



FARMERS' CO-OPERATIVE ELEVATORS 257 

The origin and };rii\\tli oi the farmers' elexator movement repre- 
sents one of the most liotly contested battles of modern grain market- 
ing. It has withstood triiimj^hantly and today is a great factor in the 
marketing of the annual corn crop. 

Back in the early eighties and previous to that time a growing dis- 
satisfaction v^as fomented among the grain producers on account of 
the apparent depression of prices, frequent "short weights" in selling 
and shipping, "leakage" and "shrinkage" in transportation and dishon- 
est treatment on the part of some grain buyers. At that time the "line 
elevators" held practically a monopoly on the grain trade. Then it 
was that "scoopers" originated. A scoopcr was a grain buyer who 
went from place to place buying and shipping grain. He did not have 
an elevator, but had the grain scooped into the cars from the farmer's 
wagons. 

About this same time a large syndicate arose which was headed by 
large exporters and commission firms with capital. Other syndicates 
followed. These operated along the various railroad lines. The 
"scoopers" were then forced out of business. In many cases it was 
discovered that members of these grain buying syndicates were also 
stockholders of the railroads, and were owners of large storage ware- 
houses. They were able to dictate prices. Besides this they became 
favored shippers through their influence with the railroad companies; 
and by owning their warehouses in addition to doing their own buying 
and selling through the I^xchanges, they could influence practically 
every department of marketing. 

At this same time independent elevators were increasing in num- 
ber. However these were very largely dominated by the syndicates. 
Those who refused to be controlled by the syndicate were soon forced 
out of business. 

Grain Dealers' Associations represent the next step in the history 
of grain Ijuying. These associations brought about many improve- 
ments in the marketing of grain but in many cases they increased the 
suspicion on the part of the producer that prices were being "fixed". 

Out of the discontent which was growing among the farmers, at- 
tempts were made to ship grain directly to the principal markets. 
This proved impracticable on account of the failure to get cars from the 
railroads. The only escape seemed to be through organization, so late 
in the eighties we lind records of the Farmers" Elevators. 



258 CORN 

The first Farmers' Elevator to be organized in Lnva was at Rock- 
well in 1899. Up to that time such organizations had not proved very 
successful. One of the first difficulties was to secure elevator sites 
from the railroad companies. Then, trouble was found in securing 
cars and equable shipping rates. For several years it was almost im- 
possible to induce commission merchants in the central markets to 
handle their grain. The Farmers' Elevators were practically boy- 
cotted. Until the penalty clause was inserted in the by-laws of the 
organization, progress was very slow. The penalty clause simply 
provided that in case the farmers of the organization sold corn to 
other elevators they should pay a certain amount to their own elevator. 
This was for the purpose of protection against some of the methods 
which had been employed by other grain dealers to cripple the 
Farmers' Elevator. The fact that the organization has endured 
against all adversities is the best proof of its value to the producer. 

In recent years the movement has become of such strength as to 
win the solicitation and support of a large number of the commission 
firms. State and National organizations are being formed. It might 
be added that a groAving harmony is being felt among all grain deal- 
ers. The growth is best shown in the following table. 

TABLE NO. 59 

SHOWING THE NUMBER OF FARMERS' ELEVATORS IN DIFFERENT 

STATES— 1903-1913. 

State '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12 '13 

IlHnois 15 90 125 125 150 170 170 225 300 300 300 

Iowa 7 30 78 175 200 209 250 300 324 347 347 

Minnesota __ 150 168 178 205 224 240 277 307 

N. Dakota __ 85 85 85 85 85 300 300 350 

S. Dakota __ 100 100 100 150 200 200 220 220 

Nebraska ___ 140 160 200 200 200 200 

Kansas 32 

22 120 203 635 703 882 1020 1234 1564 1644 1756 

Farmers' Elevator — How Organized. Organized under the laws 
of their respective states the corporations elect the usual officials, 
namely, president^ vice president, secretary, treasurer, and board of 
directors, varying in number but usually consisting of from five to 
nine men. 

The capital of the company is ordinarily about $10,000. Shares of 
stock are issued and sold. The par value of a share is usually $25.00, 



FARMERS' ELEVATOR— HOW ORGANIZED 259 

or $50.00. The number of shares which may Ije issued to one person 
is frequently limited, so that the total investment of any one individual 
may not be more than $200 or $500, varying in different companies. 
Frequently each share owned by a stockholder entitles him to one 
vote at a meeting of stockholders, but the number of votes that may 
be cast by any individual is usually limited regardless of the number 
of shares he may possess. In some companies the transfer of stock is 
subject to the approval of the board of directors. 

In distributing the profits several plans are followed. In some 
cases the profits are divided among the stockholders according to the 
amount of stock held. In some states the companies are permitted by 
law to distribute profits on the co-operative basis. A definite return 
is granted to each stockholder which is merely interest on the capital 
invested. This rate of interest is determined by law. The profits are 
then distributed among the stockholders according to the amount of 
business each has done with the company. This may be according to 
the number of bushels of grain each has sold to the elevator. 

The i)cnalty clause already referred to provides that any stock- 
holder in the Farmers' l^^levator Company who sells grain to another 
elevator shall pay a certain amount to his own elevator (usually from 
1-2 to 1 cent per bushel). From eighty to ninety per cent of the com- 
panies have this clause included in their by-laws. In some cases the 
legality of this clause has been questioned and others feel that it is no 
longer necessary, although it is felt that without this provision in the 
past the movement would have been greatly crippled. 

Representatives of local cooperative organizations can be as well 
posted each day as managers of the "line elevators." Market quota- 
tions by wire are received from all of the leading distributing and 
storing points. No knowledge, however, of the movement of gram 
enroute to market can be ascertained. A larger cooperation of all the 
societies in a given district is the solution of this difficulty. With the 
increase in the influence of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and 
that of the State Railroad Commissioners, a more amiable relation 
between farmers' organizations and transportation companies will 
exist. This is already manifested by a number of the railroads in 
their kindlv attitude. 



260 



CORN 




SMALL COUNTRY ELEVATOR 



CAR SHORTAGE 



261 



Corn Enroute to Market. At a certain time of year, especially in 
seasons of corn of low keeping ([uality, a car shortage occurs in the 
growing districts. In consideration of this point, the following para- 
graph is taken from the American Elevator and Grain Trade of Janu- 
ary 15, 1907. 

"The Iowa Railroad Commission recommended in January, 1907, 
that elevators in grain growing communities be of more reasonable 
capacity, sufificient to care for the products of the surrounding dis- 
tricts. Such increase in storage capacity would, it is believed, solve 
the car shortage problem. But, as George A. Wells truly says: 'There 
is no reason why the farmers shouldn't build bins sufficient to hold 
their grain and ship it when the market is the highest. They can pick 
that time as well as anyone else. Corn left in the field will not grade 
and the farmer suffers the loss. Even if additional elevators were 




CAR BEFORE IT HAS BEEN PROPERLY 
LINED FOR GRAIN 



262 CORN 

provided, the farmers would be compelled to pay high storage charges, 
which would eat up their profits. But, by building bins and watching 
the market, they would also relieve the car shortage, which comes 
only because every one wants to get his corn to market at once.' " 

How to Prepare Cars for Grain. Cars should be prepared 
for grain in such a way as to prevent, if possible, any leakage in 
transit, and to prevent rain or snow from reaching the grain. 

There are three causes for the leakage of grain in transit, as 
follows : 

(i) Defective car equipment. 

(2) Rough handling of equipment by railroads. 

(3) Carelessness on the part of the loader. 

The first two causes are beyond the control of the individual ship 
per, but the last named cause can be practically eliminated if the 
proper effort is made by the loader. 

Shortage due to leakage in transit, causes all interested much con- 
cern. Shipper, receiver, line of transportation, and terminal weigh- 
master all suffer directly or indirectly. Therefore, all should do their 
part towards eliminating this constant source of contention. 

The points to be inspected in a car, arranged in order of their 
greatest important, as determined by leakage statistics, are as follows : 
lows : 

(i) The grain doors; 

(2) The sheathings ; 

(3) Door posts and end posts; 

(4) End doors and windows; 

(5) Linings ; 

(6) Floors, 

Be sure that your grain doors are strong enough. A safe plan is 
to make them stronger than you deem necessary. They should be 
well braced, and all braces should be nailed to each and every board. 
It is poor economy to scant this bracing. Where a vertical center 
brace is used, put a cleat on the floor at the bottom, if possible. The 
best and safest door of which we know, is made by placing two ordi- 
nary grain doors with the flat sides together. The object in placing 
the flat sides together is to prevent grain from lodging between them. 
Under no circumstances should a door be used which is too short for 
the opening. Spliced grain doors are most unsatisfactory and un- 
certain. 

Patent doors, having effective lugs at the bottom, and other propei 



LINING CARS 



263 



fastenings, should not be nailed to the door posts. When nailing is 
necessary, never use spikes, as spikes cause the mutilation of the door, 
when opened at the unloading point. 

Single boards should be used for the top of the grain door in order 
that one or more boards may be knocked off by the grain inspector 
without loosening others and causing leakage. The jarring and jolt- 
ing of cars in switching will level the grain in them ; therefore, the 
doors and windows should be boarded above the leveling point. 




CAR AFTER IT HAS BEEN PROPERLY 
LINED FOR GRAIN 

Next in importance are the sheathings. Both the side and end 
sheathings should be examined after the cars are loaded, and any 
that are loose or bulged should be securely nailed. The rocking of 



264- CORN 

the car in rounding curves will surely spring weak sheathings and 
allow the escape of grain, which the linings will not prevent. Leak- 
age at sheathings is not readily detected unless the cars are in motion. 

Leaks due to defective door and end posts are liable to be serious. 
Therefore, a careful examination of them should be made before 
loading. When there is any evidence of weakness in these posts, the 
inside of the car at these points should be lined with burlap or cloth 
in such a manner as to prevent leakage should they give away. 

End doors which extend to the floor are a source of many leaks 
and should therefore receive a careful examination, and if cooperage 
be necessary, it should be on the inside of the car. A grain door set 
on end will afiford good protection. Always lock or cleat the end 
windows on the inside and do not neglect to board them high enough. 

In referring to end windows when preparing cars for grain, Mr. 
R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern Com- 
pany, writes: "When you load cars, fasten the end doors inside with 
a cleat, since it is through these doors that robberies occur. That 
is the reason we want them cleated before loading with grain." 

The lining of cars should also receive careful attention on the part 
of the loader, as grain lodging behind them frequently amounts to 
several hundred pounds; and where it lodges in pockets is often lost 
to the shipper. A careful cooper will pay particular attention to this 
point. 

In addition to the above, special attention is directed to the floors, 
more particularly when small grains such as flaxseed, rye and wheat 
are to be loaded. 

Aside from repairing large defects in a car to be loaded with bulk 
grain, any shipper can secure the best insurance against leakage at 
the least expense by lining the cars to be loaded as they are frequently 
and most successfully lined for flaxseed. 

The cost of preparing a car in this manner varies from fifteen to 
thirty cents for the material, according to its condition. 

Size of Cars. Box cars for the shipment of grain have capacities 
varying from 30,000 to 100,000 pounds. Their dimensions range from 
27 feet 6 inches in length and 7 feet, 10 1-2 inches in width, to 40 feet 
in length and 8 feet 6 inches in width. The grain line which is placed 
in cars for the purpose of preventing overloading and underloading, 
varies in height in the case of corn from 3 feet to 6 feet 7 inches. 

It is not expected that corn will weigh out according to the meas- 
urement or grain line in car. According to the Chicago Shippers' 
Manual, corn testing 55 pounds occupies approximately 2,090 cubic 



CAPACITY OF CARS 



265 



inches per bushel; settled, approximately 2,020 cubic inches per bush 
el. Corn testing 54 pounds, 2,130 cubic inches; settled, 2,065 cubic 
inches. A car 33 feet long by 8 1-2 feet wide and filled to a height 
of three feet with shelled corn, would contain 693 bushels. These 
figures are only approximate. The specific gravity of grain is con- 
stantly varying because of moisture, pressure and quality. 




CAR DOOR COVERED WITH CHEESE CLOTH 
TO PREVENT LEAKAGE 



The rules of the different railroads governing the quantities of 
grain to be loaded into cars of various capacities vary to a limited 
extent in minor details. The maximum amount of grain allowed to 
be loaded is 10 per cent over the marked capacity of the car, on prac- 
tically all roads. 

The Burlington Railroad makes the following stipulation in re- 
gard to shipping ear corn : 



266 CORN 

Ear corn will be subject to the following minima, but not to ex- 
ceed the marked capacity of the car. 

In cars not over 28 feet in length (inside measurement), 4,000 
pounds less than marked capacity of car, but not less than 30,000 
pounds. 

In cars not over 34 feet in length (inside measurement), 46,000 
pounds. 

In cars not over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 56,000 
pounds. 

In cars over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 66,000 pounds 

Corn Shelled in Transit. Shipments of ear corn to be shelled in 
transit must be loaded to full visible capacity, but not to exceed car- 
rying capacity of car. If the weight of the shelled corn from a car 
so loaded is less than the minimum weight on shelled corn for the 
car in which the same is loaded, actual weight of the shelled corn 
may be accepted, if the ear corn is not loaded to visible capacity of 
car, the minimum weight on the out-turned shelled corn will be 30,000 
pounds. 

Agents will carefully examine all shipments of ear corn to see if 
cars are loaded to their full visible capacity, but not above carrying 
capacity of car, and make notation on way-bills, whether or not cars 
are so loaded. 

Shortages and claims as viewed by the Claim Agent of a large 
western railroad. 

"It has been my observation that most of the losses of grain are 
due to carelessness and insufficient coopering of cars by the shipper. 
When grain begins to move, a shortage of equipment usually follows. 
The roads are therefore obliged to furnish any kind of a car that will 
pass a mechanical inspection. The result is that old cars with bad 
doors, sides and floors are set in for the elevators, and it requires 
something more than ordinary coopering to make these cars safe 
against leakage. The shippers apparently do not realize this. They 
feel that if they put in the grain doors they are doing everything nec- 
essary. The fact of the matter is that a great deal of the leakage 
is around the center pins and over the draft rigging of the cars, and 
particular attention should be given to coopering such portions of 
the car. The railroad companies furnish grain doors and grain door 
lumber in abundance, and the shipper should be willing to place his 
labor in recoopering the car against the company's expense in fur- 
nishing the material. 



MAKING CLAIMS 267 

"A great many of the leakages are caused by the weight of the 
grain bulging the grain doors out. These are instances where the 
shipper is anxious to get into the car every pound of grain he possibly 
can— another result of the scarcity of equipment. In such instances 
the shipper should take into consideration the extraordinary weight 
of the grain and should use enough lumber at the doors to prevent 
the grain doors bulging or breaking. 

"A great many of the claims for grain shortages do not represent 
shortages at all, but merely errors in weight, which are brought about 
by lack of system or carelessness on the part of the shipper. Possi- 
bly he loads his car on a team track, or he may be loading two or 
more cars of different grades; he will frequently get a wagon load 
of one grade into the wrong car, and, as a consequence, one of the 
cars will check short— say, 2,000 pounds, while the other car will 
over-weigh 2,000 pounds. He puts in a claim for the shortage, but 
the railroad company never hears of the overage. It would be sur- 
prising to know how many cases of this kind the railroad companies 
actually bring to light, and it would be still more surprising if we 
could find out how many cases we never succeed in bringing to light." 

Suggestions As To Making Claims. In presenting claims for 
the loss of grain in transit, claimants who desire prompt attention 
should furnish the railroad companies against whom the claim is 
made, with the following documents and information: 

First, with copy of bill of lading. 

Second, with an affidavit made by the person who loaded the 
grain, showing the amount, date, place and number of the car into 
which the grain was loaded ; how it was weighed and the condition 
of the car when loaded. 

Third, the account of sales for the grain when it reached desti- 
nation. 

Fourth, certificate of the weighmaster at destination. If he is not 
the official Board of Trade Weighmaster, an affidavit from the person 
who unloaded the grain, showing when and where it was unloaded, 
seals of the car, condition of the car, and the number of pounds or 
bushels unloaded. 

Fifth, a complete record of any investigations which have been 
made prior to making claim for loss, with reference to the loading, un- 
loading and weighing of the grain. 

Sixth, a statement of the number of bushels lost and value of same. 



268 



CORN 



Seventh, if the claims cover damage to grain from leaky roof or 
other causes, they should be accompanied with all information bear- 
ing on the subject. 

"The mere statement of 'leaky roof by some one at a destination 
is not sufficient, by any means," writes Mr. A. Kirkland, Claim Agent 
for the Illinois Central Railroad. "We should have more than this, 
and furthermore, inspectors or others should call the attention of the 
railroad company at destination to the discovery of a leaky roof, so 
that proper investigation may be made by the railroad company. The 
great trouble and reason for delay in the adjustment of some claims 
is want of information." 

Mr. R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern 
Railway Company, writing in the same vein, states that "if, in the 
presentation of claims, the claimants would furnish complete infor- 
mation, their losses could be promptly investigated and adjusted." 





iywo 




fr 



STOPPING LEAKAGE ON THE SIDE OF 
A GRAIN CAR 



TERMINAL MARKETS. 

Strictly terminal markets are points of exchange, specu- 
lation, storage, and distribution. Such markets are necessary 
to facilitate the handling of large quantities of grain. Their 
growth has been due not only to increased production, but to the 
development of complexity in systems of distribution. Many of the 
so-called terminal markets are also primary markets where grain is 
inspected. 



DESIGN OF ELEVATOR 



269 




DESIGN OF RIGHT ELEVATION OF SMALL COUNTRY ELEVATOR. 
Follow the course of the £rain from its deliver\- from the wagon until loaded into 



270 CORN 

Approximately one-half billion bushels of corn was shipped out 
of the county where grown in the United States in 1914. Of this 
amount one-half was handled through the principal markets, and it 
will be of interest to note that Chicago alone received nearly as much 
as all of the other, markets combined. The greatest daily receipt of 
corn recorded for the Chicago market was 2,055,000 bushels, Febru- 
ary 13, 1913. 

TABLE NO. 60* 
SHOWING RECEIPT OF CORN AT PRINCIPAL MARKETS— 1914 

Chicago 106,600,000 bushels 

MinneapoHs 12,260,999 bushels 

Duluth 1,377,000 bushels 

St. Louis 17,106,000 bushels 

Milwaukee 18.338,000 bushels 

Kansas City 23,173,000 bushels 

Omaha 30,005,000 bushels 

Peoria 14,520,000 bushels 

Toledo 4,310,000 bushels 

Detroit 3,349,000 bushels 

Total 231,038,000 bushels 

The following table will give some idea of the movement of the 
corn crop by months, in 1914. This shows the receipts and shipments 
of corn for the Chicago market alone. 

TABLE NO. 61* 

SHOWING RECEIPT AND SHIPMENT OF CORN BY MONTHS FOR THE 

CHICAGO MARKET— 1914 

Received — Bushels Shipped — liushels 

January 8,774,000 4,773,000 

February 8,401,000 3,327,000 

March 7,644,000 4,249,000 

April 2,139,000 6,705,000 

May 2,492,000 4,423,000 

June 9,741,000 6,727,000 

July 5,131,000 4,188,000 

August 9,925,000 6,132,000 

September 8,146,000 5,794,000 

October 5,914,000 3,706,000 

November 12,458,000 6,001,000 

December 25,835,000 9,234,000 

Totals 106,600,000 65,259,000 

'Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade. 



CORN VALUE 271 

During" the year 1914, over sixty per cent of the corn received in 
Chicago was shipped out again. Mr. J. C. F. Merrill of the Chicago 
Board of Trade states that the Corn Products Refining Company alone 
uses approximately 100,000 bushels of corn daily, besides other large 
milling concerns use enormous quantities. 

In 1914 the principal markets including Chicago, Milwaukee, 
Minneapolis, Duluth, St. Louis, Toledo, Detroit, Kansas City, Peoria, 
Omaha, Cincinnati and Indianapolis, received 244,383,000 bushels of 
corn and shipped out 161,450,000 bushels. Most of the corn reshipped 
from the above markets was of course used in other cities, and the 
balance exported. 

Corn Values. The following table exhibits the highest and lowest 
prices for Contract Corn (Spot) at Chicago during each month. 

TABLE NO. 62* 
SHOWING HIGHEST AND LOWEST PRICES FOR CORN 

1905 to 1914 inclusive. (Ten-year average.) 

Price per bushel 
Lowest Highest 

January ., 51.9 55.3 

February 52.4 55.3 

March 53.5 58.2 

April 56.0 61.1 

May 59.2 66.2 

June 60.2 64.9 

July 61.0 67.1 

August UciJ 69.9 

September (>2.8 69.0 

October 58.<) 65.4 

November 56.9 63.0 

December 54.0 60.5 

Entire Year S7.t> 63.0 

Between the highest and lowest average annual prices for the past 
decade there was a range of 5.5 cents per bushel. From May until 
October inclusive we find prices above the average, and November to 
April shows the prices below the average. During the ten years the 
August prices were the highest. 

Taking an average of the thirty-five years previous to the past 
decade we find practically the same range between the highest and 
lowest average prices. {S.d< cents.) For the same period the market of 
August, September and October was the highest. 

•Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade. 



272 CORN 

In the ten year record ^ivcn al)ovc the lowest average price (51.9 
cents) was recorded in January, and the hii^hest average price (69.9 
cents) was reached in August. 'The average range then between the 
highest and lowest ])rices for the year was 18 cents per husliel. 

A study of the markets for the ])ast lifty years shows that during 
the months of Decemljcr, January and i<'el)ruary the lowest market 
])rice for corn was recorded forty-two times, and the highest market 
])rice was recorded only eight times. For the months of March, April 
and May the Icjwest market i)rice was recorded three times and the 
highest jjrice fifteen times. lM)r the months of June, July and August 
the lowest market price was recorded once and the highest market 
price thirteen times. For Sej^tember, October anrl November the 
lowest market price was recorded four times and the highest market 
])rice fourteen times. See following table. 

TABLE NO. 63 
SIIOWINO riMK OF III(;ll AND LOW PRICES FOR CORN (Fifty-year average) 

Number of times recorded 
Montli ^^^^^^^^^^^ Lowest p rice Highest Price 

January 16 4 

February 8 

March 2 1 

April 1 2 

May 12 

June 1 2 

July — 4 

August 7 

Sei)tember ; 1 2 

October 3 4 

Ncveml)er 8 

December 18 4 

It is of more than passing interest to note that during the average 
year approximately forty-five per cent of the corn received at the 
large markets arrives there during the months of December, January 
and l'\'l)ruary. 

GRAIN INSPECTION 

History of Grain Inspection.-" Illinois was the first state in the 
union to provide by law, rules and regulations for the inspection of 
grain and for registration of warehouse receipts for grain under state 
supervision. 

•Taken from "The J!. .ok ..f 'I'h.- I'.nard of Tiadi," 1910. 



inS'l'(>K\ OF (IKAIN INSFI-XTION 273 

The earliest record of any attempt at the inspection of grain in tlie 
west, if not in the entire country, was in Chicago, in 1848. Previous 
to that time all transactions were made from samples shown or grain 
as offered from farmers' wagons. In 1854 the volume of grain having 
very largely increased, the old manner of measuring hy the half bushel 
became too slow and uncertain, and agitation resulted in a change to 
the present system of weighing grain, by which a stated number of 
pounds represents a bushel of each of the different kinds. 

The foundation of the present system of inspection was laid by 
the Chicago Board of Trade in 1858, and this system has since been 
adopted, substantially in the same form, throughout the country 
where grain is inspected at all. and its inthience is now felt in the grain 
trade all over the world. 

In 1871 the state, through ils ( ieneral Assembly, enacted a law 
creating a Board of Railroad and Warehouse C^ommissioners and pro- 
vided further for the classification and supervision of elevators and 
warehouses; and for the appointment of a chief grain insj^ector and a 
registrar of grain for the City of Cliieago, together with the necessary 
corps of assistants to each. In comi)liance with this law, the inspec- 
tion of grain in Illinois has since been under the jurisdiction of the 
state. 

All grain was first inspected in the cars. A large force of men 
was necessarily employed for this work in such a market as Chicago. 
Each man stood alone. Dissatisfaction grew out of this method (^n 
account of a lack of uniformity in grading. 

The change of inspection was initiated by Mr. J. C. V. Merrill, 
Secretary of the Chicago Hoard of Trade. A committee of three com- 
petent judges was lirst provided to pass on all grain on which the 
inspector's grade was doubtful. 

Room inspection originated in Minneapolis and Duluth. During 
the cold winter months, when a large per cent of the corn crop reached 
the primary and terminal markets, and during stormy weather, con- 
ditions were not \ery favorable for accurate grading in the cars on 
track. None of the official grading is now done at the car. 

All grading and inspection is now done by go\ennnen( officials, or 
by those appointed by (he I'.oard of Trade, Cdiamber of Commerce, or 
Railroad and Warehouse Commissioners. In many states, federal 
inspection is already efl'ectixe. 



274 



CORN 



The Steps in the Inspection. Wlieii a carload of grain reaches the 
terminal yards of any railroad, it is carded by the railroad company 
"Grain for Inspection" and switched to tracks in the yard designated 
as grain tracks. 

In Chicago a deputy inspector with from two to four helpers is 
required for each of fourteen principal railroads. They begin work 
early each morning. During the months of heaviest shipments of 
grain, these men must be at work by daylight. The deputy inspector 
gets the shipping bills first from the freight office, giving number and 
description of the cars to be inspected. 




BREAKING THE SEAL 

A deputy grain inspector is standing in the foreground ; by his side stands his helper with 
ladder and crowbar ready to open the door and remove boards if necessary, that the sampler 
(standing just behind him) may enter. Note the instrument on his shoulder used for taking the 
sarnples. This is called a "tryer." The fifth party standing by the cart collects the samples 
which are taken to the State Inspection Headquarters. 

One man goes ahead and first examines each car to be inspected 
for leakage or stealage due to damaged car or broken seal. This 
record with a complete description of the car is preserved for evidence 
in case of recovering damages. Then after getting the seal record of 
a car, he opens it and tacks on the door what is known as an "In- 
spector's Ticket." 



SAMPLING CARS 



275 



This ticket is tacked on the car for the inspectoi to make his record. 
It is perforated across the middle so the inspector can tear off the bot- 
tom half for his own record, giving initials of consignee, contents of 
car and car number. The part of the ticket left on the car gives the 
name of the railroad on whose tracks the car stands, and date of in- 
spection. This remains on the car until it is loaded and is the author- 
ity of the elevator superintendent for unloading the car. 




THE INSPECTOR'S TAG IS NOW PUT ON THE CAR 



With the inspector there are probably two helpers who get the 
samples of grain from the cars. They go ahead and carefully sample 
each car with a "tryer." (A "Tryer" is a hollow steel or brass tube 
about two inches in diameter and four feet long, with spaces four 
inches long and an inch and a half wide, the full length of the tryer, 
with a closed space between these open spaces of two and three quar- 
ter inches. This tube is fitted with a wooden plunger that fits closely 
inside the tube.) The tryer is pushed down to the bottom of the car 
and then plunger taken out. The tube readily fills, thus getting a 
sample of all of the grain from the bottom to the top of the load. 



276 



CORN 




THE EXTRA BOARDS ARE BEING REMOVED 



Several "tryerfuls" are taken in this way to ascertain the uniformity 
of the grain in the car. If there is any variation between the different 
parts of the car more than one sample may be taken and the extent of 
the mixture will be recorded. Each sample contains about two quarts 
and is placed in a heavy cloth bag. If the car is of uniform grade 
throughout only one sample is required. This sample, however, is 
made up from a part of each "tryerful" of grain taken. It is hung on 
the car door fastener for the inspector who follows closely. In case 
a car is too full to use the tryer, it is reported "subject to inspection" 
and sold as such. The inspector fills out the inspection ticket, giving 
car number, initials, kind of grain, railroad, consignee, date and his 
own name with any remarks which he wishes to make. This ticket is 
quickly filled out and placed in the sample bag. 

One man follows the inspector and gathers up the samples to be 
taken into the inspection office. Another man re-seals the car and 
again records the seal. The purpose of this is to furnish evidence in 
case a seal is broken or changed before the car is unloaded. 



SAMFI.KS I'AKl'N To ol'l ICr: 



277 




A SAMPLE OF GRAIN IS COLLECTED 

The car number and the grade is marked on the tags to 
be placed in the sack. These are to be representative sam- 
ples. They are taken to the State Inspection Headquarter."^ 
and used in selling the grain on the cash market. 



As soon as all of the cars have been inspected the men return with 
the samples, packed in wheel baskets, to the Illinois State Grain In- 
spection Department. First they go to the room where the moisture 
test is made. During the busy season, a large force of testers are re- 
quired. They have already installed over one hundred moisture test- 
ing outfits. After the test is completed the moisture percentage is 
recorded on the inspector's ticket, which is placed back in the sack 
and taken with the sample into the grading room. 

(10) 



278 



CORN 




aftjLr the car has been sampled 
it is again sealed 



In the grading room the official graders inspect the samples for 
color, condition, per cent of damaged grain and per cent of dirt and 
foreign material. The sack is first emptied into a special pan. Color 
and condition can be cjuickly determined by expert judgment. A 
special set of sieves are at hand for use in determining the amount of 
cracked corn, dirt and foreign material. The data is recorded on the 
inspector's ticket in the sack. 

The sample is then "split". This is done at a special table. A part 
of each sample is taken out of the cloth bag and placed in a paper sack 
on the outside of which is recorded a complete description of the grain, 
including car number, kind of grain, grade, initials of consignee, rail- 
road, date inspected and moisture content. This sample is then ready 



REINSPECTION 



279 



to be sent across the street to the Board of Trade Ihiikhiig' for the 
(hiy's trade. The remainder of the sample in the orii^inal cloth bag 
with the ins])ector's ticket still enclosed is hnng in an adjoining room 




MAKING MOISTURE TEST. (Brown-Duvel Method) 
Samples fiom cars on tabic in forcgrounil. These men are seen weighing out sample, 
placing sample in llask, reading and lecording tests. (Picture lakon by Robert II. ]\Ic)ultun.) 



on a numbered hook. This hook number is recorded in order that the 
sample may be relocated ])roni|)t]y if wanted. (Occasionally a second 
inspection is ordered. This must be done within twenty-four hours 
however, for after that time the sample is emptied and only the in- 
spector's ticket preser^■ed. 

In case of reinspection, if no error is found in the first inspection, 
the original grade is maintained. In case of error the grade is altered 
and the change reported to the consignee. Should the consignee still 
be dissatisfied, nndcr the rules governing the ins])ection department, 
he has a right to ajjpeal to what is known as the "Appeals C'onnnittee." 
Their decision is final and cannot be appealed further. The Commit- 
tee of Ap])eals consists of three discreet and competent persons to 
hold office one year and must be appointed by the Board of Railroad 
and Warehouse Commissioners. 



280 



CORN 



■ 


TT 




k> 


■ — 


:»B|^^^h 


S|H 


■■ Immmhisx^^^^ 




rifP^MlMi iir^'^^^^^^t" <l B/ Ji 


^H 






^^^^^Hl^ 


^^^^IB^^^K^ ' '''^' ^H 


KB^^^^5!!^L-jill^3Jr '^ 



THE MAIN INSPECTION KOUM. (Illinois Inspection Department) 

(iiading grain. Samples have lieen received from the moisture-test room adjoining. They 

are being examined for damaged grain, color, condition, dirt and foreign matter, etc. Note 

sample pans, scales, etc. The man at the desk to the left is making a record of each car of 

grain, giving its full history from which certificate will be made by the Registrar. The record 
is copied from the inspector's ticket. (Picture taken by Robert H. Moulton.) 



During- the busy season approximately fifteen hundred cars of 
grain arrive at the Chicago yards daily. Indeed as many as 2,520 cars 
of grain have been recorded for a single day. These must be in- 
spected, sampled, tested, graded and made ready for the day's market 
by 11:00 o'clock each morning. The samples in the paper sacks are 
assembled for each man to whom the cars of grain were consigned. 
These sacks are then taken across to the Board of Trade Building and 
placed on tables arranged on the floor close to the "pit" where buying 
and selling is done. Each commission firm rents a table, or part of 
one, usually a quarter or half, upon which to do business. 



CfRAlN GRADES 



281 




THE HOOK ROOM WHERE SAMPLES ARE HUNG AFTER BEING GRADED 

(Illinois Inspection Department) 

The samples are hung on numbered hooks and left here twenty-four hours, or until after the 
time has expired in which shipper or buyer may ask re-inspection. The sample is then dumped. 
(Picture taken by Robert H. Moulton.) 

Grain Grades and Inspection.* The work of grain inspection in 
Chicago now requires more than a hundred men in the State Grain 
Inspection Department alone. Besides this the Board of Trade has 
a special inspection department. 

The Chief Inspector of the State Department is appointed by the 
governor with the approval of the State Senate. It is required that he 
shall not be a member of the Board of Trade, or interested either 
directly or indirectly in any warehouse in the state. He must take 
oath and furnish bond in the penal sum of fifty thousand dollars. His 
term of office is two years. 

The Chief Inspector, with the approval of the Board of Commis- 
sioners of Railroads and Warehouses, has authority to appoint deputy 
inspectors and assistants. All deputy inspectors are required to fur- 
nish bond, pass Civil Service examination, and be neither directly nor 
indirectly interested in any warehouse in the state, nor connected with 
the Board of Trade. 



•Annual Report ot Illinois Grain Inspection Department. 



282 



CORN 



All persons employed in the inspection of grain are required to 
report promptly, in writing^ to the Chief Inspector any attempt to de- 
fraud the system of grain inspection established by law, and all in- 
stances where warehouse owners shall deliver or attempt to deliver 
grain of a lower grade than that called for by the warehouse receipt. 



GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN.* 

(By J. W. T. Duvel) 

])y virtue of the authority vested in the Secretary of Agriculture 
by the acts of Congress of June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 669), and of 
March 4, 1913 (37 Stat., 828), to fix definite grades of grain, the grades 
for corn shown in Table 64 were fixed and promulgated on January 3, 
1914, to take eft'ect July 1, 1914. 

TABLE NO. 64 

GRADE CLASSIFICATION OF WHITE, YELLOW AND MIXED CORN, SHOW- 
ING MAXIMUM ALLOWANCES OF MOISTURE AND OTHER FACTORS. 



M.\XI!\1UM .\LLOWANCES OF 









c.= ~ 


O c 








— O 4J 


C i; «J 








O C 


■^ ho 








^"^ tC o 










'u " 










V 1-- ,/■ 




Grade 






mat 

dir 

grain 

corn, 


Classifiea- 


Moisture 


Damaged corn 


T) bodii 








.1^ s 










t-^ 's-^ 


n s 








o =.= S 


U y S 2 








P-i O — 


:: -Z.:^ (D 



Per cent 



Per cent, i Per cent. 



No. 1 

No. 2 
No. 3 
No. 4 

No. 5 

No. 6 




2 per cent (exclusive of heat damaged 
or mahogany kernels) 

4 per cent (exclusive of heat damaged 

or mahogany kernels) 

6 per cent (exclusive of heat damaged 

or mahogany kernels) 

8 per cent (may include heat damaged 
or mahogany kernels not to exceed 

one-half of one per cent) 

10 per cent (may include heat damaged 
or mahogany kernels not to exceed one 

per cent) 

15 per cent (may include heat damaged 
or mahogany kernels not to exceed three 
per cent) 



Sample — See general rules No. 6 for sample grade. 
* Farmers Bulletin No. 16S 



RII.KS (;()\KR\I\(; c;KAnKS . 283 

GENERAL RULES. 

(1) The corn in grades Xo. 1 t(» Xo. 5, inclusixc, must he sweet. 

(2) \\'hite corn, all iirades, shall he at least 98 per cent white. 

(3) Yellow corn, all .grades, shall he at least 95 per cent yellow. 

(4) Mixed corn, all .grades, sliall include corn of variotis colors 
not coming- within the limits for color as provided for under white 
and yellow corn. 

(5) In addition to the \arious limits indicated, X^o. 6 corn may he 
musty, sour, and may also include that ot" inferior quality, such as im- 
mature and liadiv hlistered corn. 

(6) All corn that does not meet the requirements of either of the 
six numerical grades by reason of an excessive percentage of moisture, 
damaged kernels, foreign matter, or "cracked'' corn, or corn that is 
hot, heat damaged, tire burnt, infested with live weevils, or otherwise 
of distinctly low quality shall l)e classed as sample grade. 

(7) In X'o. 6 and sample grades, the reasons for so grading shall 
be stated on the inspector's certificate. 

(8) Finely broken corn shall include all broken particles of corn 
that will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round holes nine 
sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter. 

(9) "Cracked" corn shall include all coarsely broken pieces of 
kernels that will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round 
holes one-c^uarter of an inch in diameter, except that the finely broken 
corn, as provided for under rule Xo. 8, shall not l)e considered as 
"cracked" corn. 

(10) It is understood that the damaged corn, the foreign material 
(including dirt, pieces of cob, finely broken corn, other grains, etc.) 
and the coarsely broken or "cracked" corn, as provided for under the 
various grades, shall be such as occur naturally in corn when handled 
under good commercial conditions. 

(11) Moisture percentages, as provided for in these grade speci- 
fications, shall conform to results obtained i)y the standard method 
and tester. 



284 



CORN 



Duvel Moisture Test. 




BROWN-DUVEL MOISTURE 
TESTER 

Sectional view showing the various 

parts properly connected for use. 

Heating chamber and condensing 

tank in position. 



The moisture test is very simple, but re- 
quires painstaking accuracy. The appara- 
tus consists essentially of a one-liter glass 
flask arranged above a gas burner ; a 
thermometer which extends through the 
rubber stopper in the mouth of the flask 
(A), a glass tube also fitted through the 
rubber stopper into the flask and running 
through a metal condensing tank filled 
with cold water into a 25 c, c. glass gradu- 
ate (B). As a rule this apparatus con- 
sists of a series of such flasks, burners, 
thermometers and graduates, so that a 
number of samples may be tested at the 
same time. 

Into each distillation flask place first 
150 c. c. (cubic centimeters) of engine 
oil, which must have a high flash point. 
\Veigh accurately 100 grams of thorough- 
ly mixed grain and place in the flask, sub- 
merging it in the oil, insert the thermom- 
eter through the rubber stopper so that 
only the mercury bulb is immersed in the 
oil, then connect the flask with the con- 
denser and 25 c. c. graduate by means of 
the glass tube which fits into the rubber 
stopper. Re sure that the graduate is dry 
inside. 



When the flasks are filled apply the heat until a temperature of 
190 degrees centigrade is reached (for corn). Heat gradually so that 
the required temperature is reached in approximately 20 minutes. 
Then remove the flame and allow the temperature to recede 15 degrees 
(or to 175 degrees). This will require about ten minutes more. 



Since 100 grams of grain is used in the test and one cubic centi- 
meter is equivalent to one gram, the percentage of moisture in the 



MIXING CiRADES 285 

grain is read directly from the graduate (B). Thus if it reads 16 c. c. it 
is equivalent to 16 per cent moisture. 

STANDARD GRADES OF CORN FOR THE FARMER. 

One of the stock arguments against the standard grades of corn 
established is that the producer does not get full benefit. He must sell 
to the country elevator and accept the grade oflfered him. The coun- 
try elevator superintendent on the other hand is not equipped to handle 
the multiplicity of grades now in operation. In a sense this is true. 
One man in a community with extra choice grain, but not having 
enough to warrant separate shipment or separate storage is at a dis- 
advantage. He always has been. He always will be until his neigh- 
bors begin taking the same interest in producing and marketing a 
choice grade of grain. A much higher percentage of the farmers are 
producing a better quality of grain than formerly. These farmers 
naturally feel that the elevator buying their grain should be equipped 
both for determining the grade and with storage capacity for handling 
it separately. Thus the grain would be bought on its merit and the 
farmers having the best quality would receive the best price. No 
stronger argument could be used in impressing upon the minds of the 
producers the value of quality. The purpose of establishing these 
grades was to encourage growers and shippers in general to improve 
the bulk of the product. It is not uncommon to walk into an elevator 
and see grain, however, tliat should have graded No. 2 carrying so 
much dirt and foreign matter that is largely lost to the elevator that 
the product actually graded around No. 4 or even lower. Not until the 
grower has grasped the necessity of properly cribbing, storing, shelling 
and cleaning his grain can the producers at large hope to receive the 
maximum benefit. One of the first essentials, however, is the growing 
of varieties that mature well in the locality grown. 

MIXING OF GRADES. In connection with the standard grades es- 
tablished for corn, perhaps no controversy has been as much hashed 
over as the mixing of grades. It has already been stated that dift'erent 
grades of corn cannot be mixed in the same bins in public warehouses. 
Now the question arises can different grades be mixed in shipping out 
from the warehouse or elevator? This is best answered in a clipping 
taken from the testimony of Dr. Duvel before a special commission. 



286 CORN 

"We have not attempted in any way in these grades to prohibit 
mixing, providing the mixing" is legitimate and on the grade. In fact, 
we have made these grades intentionally so that mixing can be done. 
That is the reason why we fixed the limit on damage in these rules — 
No. 2 corn at 4 per cent. No. 3 corn at 6 per cent, and No. 4 corn, 8 
per cent. Now, if you have two cars or, we will say, one car of No. 2 
and one car of No. 4, with a maximum percentage of damage, you can 
mix these two cars and get two cars of No. 3. Of course, the chances 
are that you would have two cars that would have the maximum that 
you would want to mix. But we don't admit, and we don't believe, 
that you should be allowed to mix these two cars, and get two cars of 
No. 2, although 1 admit that in some cases under these grades it can 
be done and done legitimately, if you have a high No. 2 and a high 
No. 4 car, or especially if you have a high No. 2 and a high No-. 3. But 
I don't believe you ought to be allowed to mix any damaged or sour 
corn and expect to have the thing graded as No. 2 corn. When a man 
buys No. 2 corn, he expects No. 2 corn, and he ought to get it." 

RECEIPT OF CORN IN CHICAGO BY GRADES. 

The following shows the number of carloads of corn of the differ- 
ent grades shipped to Chicago from the crop of 1914, and the percent- 
age of each grade received. It will be well to remember that this croj) 
was unusually well matured. 

TABLE NO. 65 

RECEIPT OF CORN BY GRADES— CHICAGO, 1914 

Per cent No. 1 corn received 1.2 

Per cent No. 2 corn received 26.0 

Per cent No. 3 corn received : 40.0 

Per cent No. 4 corn received 24.0 

Per cent No. 5 corn received 2.5 

Per cent No. 6 corn received 2.8 

Per cent S. G. (Sample Grade) corn received 3.5 

Approximately seventy-five per cent of the corn received in Chica- 
go was of Number 3 grade or poorer. Forty-eight per cent of the corn 
so received was yellow, fourteen per cent was white and thirty-eight 
per cent was mixed. 



RliGISTRATlON DEPARTMENT 287 

TABLE NO. 65— Continued 
SHOWING NUMBER OF CARS OF EACH GRADE OF CORN RECEIVED IN 

CHICAGO, 1914 



Grade No- of cars received 

No. 1 Yellow 6 

No. 2 Yellow 10,070 

No. 3 Yellow 13.897 

No. 4 Yellow 7,612 

No. 5 Yellow 942 

No. 6 Yellow 870 

Sample Grade Yellow 83o 

No. 1 White 3 

No. 2 White 2.361 

No. 3 \\hite 4,147 

No. 4 White 2,976 

No. 5 White 281 

No. 6 White 231 

Sample Grade White 410 

No. 1 Mixed 6 

No. 2 Mixed 5,789 

No. 3 Mixed 11,567 

No. 4 Mixed 6,978 

No. 5 Mixed 732 

No. 6 Mixed 1,026 

Sample Grade ]\Iixed 1.464 

Total 73.125 

THE REGISTRATION DEPARTMENT 

In connection with the Illinois State Grain Inspection Department, 
is the office which attends to the registration of every shipment of 
corn and the issuing of certificates. In the grading room a clerk is 
kept busy recording the complete data taken from the inspector's 
ticket placed in each sample of corn. There is one of these tickets for 
each lot of grain. This tabulated record is then transferred to the 
registrar's office where a certificate is made in duplicate, showing a 
complete record of the shipment. This certificate is made out to the 
person or firm to whom the grain was consigned. If he or they sell 
the grain they surrender the certificate to the buyer. It is with this 
office that the warehouse superintendent then must register grain 
taken in and secure certificate for grain to be shipped out. 



288 CORN 

SELLING CORN ON THE CASH FLOOR 

Cash Grain.* "This is the technical term for immediate deHvery. 
There are numerous terms and phrases common to the cash grain 
business, although the future and cash grain markets are so closely 
associated that the trade expressions are used almost as much for one 
as for the other. 

"Immediate Shipment" means that shipment must be made within 
three business days. "Quick Shipment" is a term of five days, and 
"Prompt Shipment" is a term of ten days. Contract Grain calls for 
grain that grades No. 2 or better, but there are variations as to the 
season of the year and in grain from different sections of the country. 

"Grain that has been loaded on vessels, either lying idle or moving, 
but which has not yet reached destination, is called "Afloat." The 
term "Boat Load" refers to 8,000 bushels of grain. When "Cargo" is 
referred to it means the loading of a steamer or vessel. An ocean 
cargo is usually around 200,000 bushels of corn. 

"When a vessel has been engaged to carry grain to a given destina- 
tion at a fixed rate of freight per bushel or per hundred pounds, it is 
termed a "Charter." Grain "On Passage" is grain on the ocean en- 
route from one port to another. "Worked for Export" is an expression 
used when a quantity of grain has been sold for export. 

"At one end of the trading hall in the Board of Trade Building is 
placed a large blackboard on which are posted bids on grain "to 
arrive." These are prices offered to country points for grain. The 
date of shipment is specified in the bid, sometimes within five days 
after date of sale, sometimes not for several months after. When 
grain is not thus bought "to arrive" it is consigned by the country 
shipper to a Board of Trade house and sold on commission. 

"After this grain (to arrive) has left the shipping point it is the 
duty of the seller to notify the buyer of the number of the car or cars 
shipped in and of the date of shipment. If after grain arrives it fails 
to meet the grade called for in the contract, settlement is made at the 
then prevailing market price for what the property is worth. If it 
grades better than specified, the shipper is at liberty to keep this gram 
and furnish the buyer with another carload that meets the grade re- 
quired." 

*From article by R. A. Meinke in 'Farming Business," May 8, 191S. 



SELLING CORN ON THE CASH FLOOR 



289 



When this grain arrives in the central market, the cars are switched 
to the grain yards as already designated. Promptly each car is ex- 
amined and samples taken for inspection. A part of each sample, after 
it has been graded by the Inspection Department, is placed in a paper 
sack on which is recorded a complete description of the car and con- 
tents, and then taken to the "cash floor" in the Board of Trade 
lUiilding. 




ON THE CASH FLOOR (Chicago Board of Trade) 

Note samples in sacks on the table, from tlTe Inspection Department. Commission mer- 
chants, agents, messenger boys, brokers and buyers around the table examining samples, buying 
and selling. (Picture taken by Robert H. Moulton, Chicago.) 



What must the commission merchant do now? Just as soon as 
samples from the cars consigned to him for that day reach his table, 
and the gong sounds to announce the time for trading he searches for 
his customers providing they are not already waiting for him. In this 
big room everything is hurry and hustle. Long rows of tables are 
heaped with paper bags containing samples of grain. Buyers and 
sellers are rushing here and there. It is noisy and crowded. Hun- 
dreds of cars of grain must be disposed of w^ithin a couple of hours. 



290 CORN 

The l)uyers represent exporters, shippers, millers, cereal manu- 
facturers, maltsters and feed dealers, who buy in very large quantities. 
There is no formality about this buying and selling. The buyers are 
striving to secure the lowest possible price on what they want, and 
the commission merchant is fighting every inch for every fraction of a 
cent he can possibly get for the grain he has to sell. He must know 
how to get his price for his client, he must be a good judge of grain, 
he must know where to find the best market, and he must be honest 
in order to hold his shippers and buyers. If he thinks the grade given 
the grain which he has to sell is too low, he orders to have it rein- 
spected. This he very frequently tloes. He is constantly meeting the 
stiffest competition known to marketing. Perhaps his client has sent 
another car of grain to some other commission firm in order to find out 
which concern gets him the best deal. He has his reputation at stake 
and on that he must depend for his living. If the grain is full of 
moisture, he knows at once he cannot sell it to the exporter or to the 
man who contemplates storing it any length of time. Then he must 
sell this to someone for immediate consumption. All these things and 
many more have to be quickly considered. 

Trading ceases promptly at 1 :30. It is left for the clerks in the 
office to figure up the returns for the day's business done by the firm. 
The following morning, perhaps, someone from the firm calls at the 
main office of the weighing department to get the certified weight 
for each car of grain sold, and this is sent to the shipper with a letter 
giving the grade, the price per bushel, freight charges, dockage or 
leakage, if any, cost of inspection, commission and a draft for the net 
proceeds of the sale. 

In addition to this the commission merchant collects claims from 
railroads for loss in transit for the shipper, and often loans money to 
shippers where conditions require it. They must work on close 
margins. 

COMMISSIONS AND OTHER FEES FOR SELLING. 

Cost of Inspection. The chief inspector of grains at Chicago is 
authorized to collect on all grain inspected, the following: 

For In Inspection: 50 cents per carload; 10 cents per wagon or 
cartload ; 50 cents per 1,000 bushels from canal boats, 1-4 of a cent per 
bushel from bags. 



COMMISSIONS AN' I) FKKS FOR SELLING 291 

For Out Inspection: 30 cents i)er 1,000 bushels to vessels and 
cars; 50 cents per carload to cars for all special inspection; 50 cents 
])er carload to teams or 10 cents per wagonbiad to teams. 

Brokerage by Grade. Ilic following rates of Ijrukerage being just 
and reasonable, arc hereby esta])lished as the minimum charge which 
shall be made by members of this Association for the transaction of 
the business specified in this section : 

For the purchase or for the sale, l)y grade alone, of wheat, corn or 
oats, to be delivered in store in regular houses, either for immediate 
or for future delivery, ten cents per 1,000 bushels; for the purchase, or 
for the sale, by grade alone, either for immediate or for future delivery, 
or to arrive, or in carload lots in any position, 50 cents. 

Brokerage by Sample and C. I. F. The following rates of broker- 
age. l)eing just and reasonable, are hereby established as the minimum 
charge which shall be made by members of this Association for the 
transaction of the business specified in this section: 

For the purchase or for the sale, by sample, or by grade and sample 
combined, for immediate or future delivery, or to arrive or in carload 
lots in any position : 

On corn or oats. i)er car, ,^1.00; on ear corn, per car, $1.50. 

For the purchase or for the sale of all kinds of grain C. I. F. (cost, 
insurance, freight), for shipment by water or rail, to or from Chicago, 
or other points, 1-8 cent per bushel in lots of 5,000 bushels or more, 
1-4 cent per bushel in lots of less than 5,000 bushels. 

Commissions for Buying or Selling, or for Buying and Selling. 

The following rates of commission, being just and reasonable, are 
hereby established as the minimum charge that shall be made by mem- 
bers of this Association for the transaction of the business specified in 
this section : 

For the purchase or for the sale, or for the i)urchase and sale, by 
grade alone, of wheat, corn or oats to l)e delivered in store either for 
immediate or for future delivery, seven dollars and fifty cents per five 
thousand bushels. 

Commissions, Buying or Selling and Accounting. The following 
rates of commission, being just and reasonable, are herel)y established 



292 CORN 

as the minimum charge that shall be made by members of this Associ- 
ation for the transaction of the business specified in this section : 

For receiving" and selling or for buying, either to be loaded or to 
be unloaded or to be forwarded, by grade or sample, or both, either 
for immediate or for future delivery, or to arrive, or in carload lots in 
any position ; on corn, 3-4 cent per bushel ; on ear corn, 1 cent per 
bushel. 

It is hereby provided that upon transactions specified in the fore- 
going paragraphs of this section which are made for the account of 
members of this Association, or for firms one at least of whose general 
partners is a member of this Association, or for corporations entitled 
under Section 8 of this rule to members' rates, one-half of the fore- 
going rates shall be the minimum rates charged. 

Commissions for Buying or Selling Vessel Lots. The following 
rates of commission, being just and reasonable, are hereby established 
for receiving and selling or for buying and shipping" the following 
described property by vessels : 

On corn or oats, 1-4 cent per bushel. 

Additional Charges. In addition to all the rates of commission 
prescribed by this rule, there shall be charged all legitimate expenses 
incurred in handling and caring for the property involved, including 
storage, insurance, inspection and weighing. Cost of sampling shall 
not be considered a charge against the property. 

Weighing Charges at Chicago. Grain, by cargo, from elevator to 
vessels, per M bushels, 15c. Grain, by cargo, from vessels to elevator, 
per M bushels, 15c. Grain from canal boats per M bushels, 15c. 
Grain, in bulk, per carload, 60c. Grain, in bags, per bag, 2c. 

Grain Storage Rates. Storage rates on all grain received in bulk 
and in good condition, shall not be in excess of one cent per bushel for 
the first ten days or part thereof, and one-thirtieth (1-30) of one cent 
per bushel for each additional day thereafter so long as such grain 
remains in good condition. 



HEATING GRAIN IN STORE 293 

Heating of Grain in Store. The duties of an elevator superin- 
tendent extend beyond the receipt, storage, and final transmission of a 
certain amount of grain. In order to be able to keep the grain received 
in good condition during storage, and to be able further to send it out 
in even better condition, if possible, he should recognize as the grain 
comes in just what kind of treatment it will require. In locating heated 
grains, a "tryer" is used or the bin is "drawn." Usually large accumu- 
lations of dust should be watched for closely. In moving or changing 
grain in bins, the weather should preferably be dry and cool. Warm, 
moist air, when allowed to come in contact with moving grain, may 
spoil it even if previously dry. 

Corn which dried on the cob in the crib on the farm or at the local 
elevator, shows little tendency to heat, except during the germinating 
time in June, when care should be taken to withhold moisture from 
it. "Winter shelled" corn keeps as long as cold weather lasts, but 
when spring opens up it should be sent to the consumer at once, as 
it is almost certain to heat. 

Grain in a heated condition loses rapidly in weight. The Shippers' 
Manual of the Chicago Board of Trade for 1907 reports a single car- 
load of hot corn shrinking 3,600 pounds. The Chicago Board of Trade 
Weighing Department has frequently weighed cars of hot corn on 
railroad track scales, day after day, the loss of weight being from 50 
to 100 pounds per day per carload. 

Professor L. G. Michael, Chemist of the Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, says that "the heating occurs when grain originally in 
a moist condition is put in bulk, thereby preventing it from drying 
out and consequently subjecting it to attacks of fermentative bac- 
teria, or cells similar to yeast cells. All chemical changes of this kind 
generate heat which, in time, will raise the temperature to such a 
height that oxidation by the air sets in. The oxidation may be so 
rapid as to cause spontaneous combustion. The heating is due almost 
entirely to fermentation which attacks the starch, changing it first 
to alcohol and later to acetic acid. If heating is continued for any 
length of time a decided loss of starchy matter results from the con- 
version of the starch to alcohol with, of course, more or less impair- 
ment of the unconverted starch. The matter of damage through 
heating is one of degree, from almost no harm, through slight rises 
in temperature, to almost complete ruin when fermentative changes 
are allowed to reach any advanced stage." 



294 CORN 

GRAIN STORAGE. 

Handling' millions of bushels of grain annually, the central market 
must have some provision for storage. This need has given rise to a 
great elevator and warehouse system. It has also made necessary an 
iron-clad system of supervision and management. 

When the commission merchant has disposed of a car of grain he 
delivers to the purchaser the certificate which he received from the 
Inspection Department with the sample. The buyer then armed with 
the number and description of the car issues orders to the transporta- 
tion company stating where he wants the car delivered. The switch- 
ing engine is soon busy making the transfer and the car is promptly 
placed for unloading. 

In many cases this means at some w^arehouse. The car has been 
carefully traced by a special police force provided by the Board of 
Trade to prevent pilfering and stealing. Before it is unloaded it is 
inspected lj>y a deputy track man who aga^n records the seals and 
reports any damage or leakage. 

When the car is placed for unloading over the "sink" or "dump" 
the deputy trackman is present to see to the opening of the car and 
to see further that the dump is clean and the deputy weighmaster 
above ready to receive the grain. The car is quickly unloaded with 
special machinery. Again the trackman sees that the car is thoroughly 
cleaned and the dump empty before signalling to the deputy weigh- 
master to record the weight. 

The grain is elexated to a large hopper in the top of the warehouse. 
This hopper will hold the contents of an average sized car. The scale, 
which has l)een ins})ected, automatically records the weight, but a 
weighman from the elevator and the deputy weighmaster from the 
Board of Trade, with probably an inspector also from the State In- 
spection Dej)artment, are present to see that no error is made in re- 
cording the weight. 

From the scale hopper the grain is conveyed to a huge bin which is 
allowed to contain but one grade of grain, llie spout from the con- 
veyor is set by the State Official and locked and sealed to avoid any 
possibility of the grain being deposited elsewhere. When grain is 
taken from one of these bins the same precaution is taken to see that 
only the grade specified in the order is drawn. It is a serious criminal 
offense to either unload or load grain from the warehouse without 
permission and without the supervision of the Inspection Department. 



MODKRN rKKMlXAl. KLKVAI'OR 



295 




MODERN TERMINAL ELEVATOR. 



296 CORN 

The man who stored grain in the warehouse is furnished with a 
storage receipt which is negotiable. In case he sells the grain he 
simply transfers this receipt. When this receipt is surrendered to 
the warehouse officials the grain may be removed according to the 
regular method. In removing grain from the warehouse, the super- 
intendent must secure a certificate from the registrar's office of the 
State Inspection Department, stating the grade and amount to be 
taken. This serves a two-fold purpose. It makes it impossible for 
the superintendent or employee of any public elevator or warehouse 
to ship out any grain without the proper state official being present to 
inspect the grain, and further secures the banks which have perhaps 
loaned money on the grain stored. 

PUBLIC WAREHOUSES. 

There are three classes of public warehouses for storing gram. 
Class "A" includes all warehouses, elevators and granaries in which 
grain is stored in bulk in such manner that the identity of dift'erent 
lots can not be accurately preserved, such warehouses, elevators or 
granaries being located in cities having not less than 100,000 inhab- 
itants. 

Class "B" includes all other warehouses, granaries or elevators in 
which grain is stored in bulk, and in which the grain of different 
owners is mixed together. 

Class "C" includes all other warehouses or places where property 
of any kind is stored for a consideration. 

Chicago alone has storage capacity for approximately 50,000,000 
bushels of grain. The regular warehouses are licensed by the Chicago 
Board of Trade, and the grain handled by them is subject to inspection 
by the State Grain Inspection Department. All grains handled by 
them are represented by negotiable warehouse certificates which form 
a collateral upon which most banks will give loans at low rates of in- 
terest. The irregular warehouses are not operated under the rules of 
the Board of Trade, but are subject to inspection by the State Grain 
Inspection Department. 



EXPORTS OF CORN 297 

REGULAR WAREHOUSES— CHICAGO. (July 1, 1915.) 

Name of warehouse Operated by Capacity bushels 

Armour Elevator, comprising- houses 

A, B and B Annex Armour Grain Co 5,000,000 

Armour Elevator Co Armour Grain Co 1,000,000 

Calumet Elevator Co Central Elevator Co._ 1,200,000 

Chicago 8i St. Louis Elev. & Annex__J. Rosenbaum 2,000,000 

National Elevator Central Elevator Co. 830,000 

J. Rosenbaum, Elevator A J. Rosenbaum 400,000 

J. Rosenbaum, Elevator B J. Rosenbaum 1,550,000 

kock Island Elevator A J. Rosenbaum 1,250,000 

South Chicago Elevator Co. & Annex_Chicago Elevator Co. 3,000,000 

Wabash Elevator E. R. Bacon 1,500,000 

Total Capacity 17,730,000 

Total Capacity Irregular Warehouses (54) 32,645,000 

Grain storage has not expanded with the increased production. 
The total storage capacity of the fourteen principal markets is ap- 
proximately 200,000,000 bushels. Of this more than 150,000,000 bush- 
els capacity is the old wooden style construction with high rates of 
interest and insurance. This leaves only about 50,000,000 capacity 
being of steel or iron. Seaboard capacities are -very limited and de- 
creasing. 

EXPORTS OF CORN. 

It is not necessary to say much concerning our corn exports from 
the United States. We export annually less than one per cent of our 
crop, while Argentina exports approximately fifty per cent of her 
crop. In 1914 this country exported 7,296,000 bushels. Table No. 68 
shows the destination of this grain. In the same year, we imported 
903,062 bushels. Our corn exports represented only little more than 
one per cent of the amount of corn shipped outside of the county 
where grown in 1914. Most of the export corn from all countries goes 
to the European markets. The principal distributing points are Liver- 
pool, London, Glasgow, Hull, Manchester, Hamburg, Bremen, Chris- 
tiana, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Havre, Marseilles, Genoa 
and Naples. 



298 



CORN 



Terminal Export Markets. The principal terminal-export markets 
are New York. New Orleans, Baltimore, Galveston, Boston, San 
Francisco, Philadelphia and the Canadian ports on the St. Lawrence. 
About fifty per cent of the corn exported goes through New York, 
New Orleans and Galveston. 

The exportation from southern ports accounts for much of the 
corn being spoiled when it reaches the European markets. The cli- 
mate is warmer and the degree of humidity much higher on the Gulf 
coast ; corn stored and shipped from these ports enters the vessel in 
condition favorable to heating. The inspection of corn at present be- 
fore loading is doing much to insure against shipment of grain that is 
damaged. The following tables show the amount of corn exported 
and imported by different countries for a term of years. 

TABLE NO. 66 
EXPORTS OF CORN FROM THE UNITED STATES, 1867 TO 1914 INCLUSIVE 



Year Bushels 

1867 - 16,026,947 

1868 12,493,522 

1869 8,286,665 

1870 2,140.487 

1871 10,676,873 

1872 35,727,010 

1873 40,154,374 

1874 35,985,834 

1875 30,025,036 

1876 50,910,532 

1877 72,652,611 

1878 87,192,110 

1879 87,884,892 

1880 99,572,329 

1881 93,648,147 

1882 44,340,683 

1883 41,655,653 

1884 46,258,606 

1885 52,876,456 

1886 64,829,456 

1887 41,368,584 

1888 25,360,869 

1889 70,841,673 

1890 103,418,709 



Year Bushels 

1891 32,041,529 

1892 76.602,285 

1893 47,121,894 

1894 66,489,529 

1895 28,585,405 

1896 101.100.375 

1897 178,817.417 

1898 212,055,543 

1899 177,255,046 

1900 213,123,412 

1901 181,405,473 

1902 28,028,688 

1903 76,639,261 

1904 58,222,061 

1905 90,293.483 

1906 119,893,833 

1907 86,368,228 

1908 39.013,000 

1909 38,114,100 

1910 44,072,200 

1911 63,533,000 

1912 32,627,000 

1913 46.923,000 

1914 7,296,000 



EXPORTS AND IMPOKIS OV CORN 



29V 



TABLE NO. 67 

»EXPORrS AND IMPORTS OF CORN BY COUNTRIES. (1913) 
(Iiicliuiing Corn Meal) 



ICXroRTS 



I-.USIK-IS 



Argentina 189,240,000 

Austria-Hungary __ 30,000 

r.elgium 6.134,0a) 

r.ritish S. Africa.— 741,000 

lUilgaria 11,362,000 

Netherlands 11,846,000 

Roumania 36,617,000 

Russia 22,898,000 

Servia 4,627,000 

l^nited States*- ___ 46,923,000 

I'ruguay 14,000 

Other Countries 6,191,000 



T.nal 336.623,000 



IMPORTS 



Buslu 



Canada - 9,041,000 

Austria-Hungary ___25,844,000 

r.elgium 25,036,000 

r.ritish S. Africa 818,000 

Cuba 3,198,000 

Netherlands 39,467,000 

Denmark 15,938,000 

Russia 609,000 

Egypt 1,184,000 

F?anc^ 23,276,000 

Germany 36.165,000 

Italy 13,849,000 

Mexico 1.548,000 

Norway 1,130,000 

Portugal 952,000 

Spain 22,400,000 

Sweden 3,975,000 

Switzerland 4,785.000 

United Kingdom ___97,721,000 
Other Countries 8,866,000 



Total 335.802.000 



TABLE NO. 68 
*DESTINATION OF CORN EXPORTS FROM UNITE D STATES (1914) 

r.ushcls 

Belgium ^^'l~i 

Canada 4,641,737 

Cuba 2.410,156 

Denmark ^^^ 

Germany 303,303 

Mexico" -+67,424 

Netherlands 373,770 

United Kingdom 540,515 

*Unitcd States Year Book, 1914. 
**In 1914 only 7.296,000 bushels. 



300 



CORN 



TABLE NO. 69 

*PER CENT OF CORN CROP OF UNITED STATES EXPORTED 
1900-1914 INCLUSIVE 



Year 


Per cent 


Year 


Per cent 


1900 


10.3 


1908 


1.5 


1901 


8.6 


1909 


1.4 


1902 


1.8 


1910 


1.6 


1903 


3.0 


1911 


2.5 


1904 


2.6 


1912 


1.0 


1905 


36 


1913 

1914 


1 9 


1906 


4.4 


27 


1907 


2.9 







Prices of Export Corn. From 1896 to 1900 the average price of 
export corn was 36.9 cents per bushel. During the same time the 
average price of corn sold on the domestic markets was 28.5 cents per 
bushel. Taking a twenty-six year average, from 1881 to 1907, the 
average price was 52.9 cents per bushel on corn for export, and 40.1 
cents per bushel for domestic markets. The current price of corn at 
the export terminal markets, however, would naturally be greater 
than the average domestic price, owing to added shipping charges, etc. 

American grain destined for foreign markets is sold C. I. F. (cost, 
insurance, freight), the marine insurance and ocean freight being in- 
cluded in the cost. 

Drying Export Corn. *"For several years, complaints were made 
as to the conditions in which our export grain, especially corn, ar- 
rives in European ports. A representative of this Bureau 
(Plant Industry) visited the principal grain-holding ports of Europe 
and made careful inquiries to determine how far these reports were 
founded on fact and how far they were colored in the interest of the 
purchaser on the other side. 

"It is to be regretted that many cargoes of corn from the United 
States have arrived in European ports in damaged condition. In 
Rotterdam, nearly 10 per cent of our corn received in 1904 was 
damaged. The same condition exists in other ports and has seriously 
injured the reputation of corn from the United States. The result has 
been an increased European trade in corn from the Argentine Repub- 
lic, our only important competitor. 

"The trade in Argentine corn has grown, both because it is sold in 
London by tons, and because it stands shipment better than corn from 
this country on account of its hard, flinty character, 

*Year Book United Stales Department of Agiicultnre. 



AMERICAN IRADK CKRTIFICATR 301 

"Our softer dent corn is nevertheless preferred in all the European 
markets, and the maintenance and increase of our export trade are de- 
pendent only upon its being shipped so that it will arrive in uniformly 
g^ood condition. As deterioration of corn during ocean transit is di- 
rectly dependent upon the amount of moisture it contains, there is an 
easy and practicable remedy for the present condition in artificial dry- 
ing. This has been successfully tried at New Orleans and the neces- 
sary machinery is now being installed in Baltimore and Boston. 

American Trade Certificate in Export Trade. During the last 
few years American grain has been discriminated against rather se- 
verely. This discrimination has been a united action of the grain-hand- 
ling interests in Europe, which from their letters seems justifiable. 
They have taken a very fair view of the situation and seem willing to 
co-operate with the American exporter in removing the trouble. 

The following letter was read by Hon. Alse J. Gronna, Represen- 
tative from the State of North Dakota, before House Committee on 
Interstate and Foreign Commerce: 

"London Corn Trade Association, 

Exchange Chambers, 28 St. Mary Ave., 
London, January 20, 1908. 
"Mr. President, — 

"I am instructed by the European International Committee on 
American Grain Certificates to communicate to you the following 
facts : 

"There has been for some years past a general consensus of opinion 
among European buyers of grain that the operation of the present 
system of certificating grain for export is increasingly unsatisfactory 
and that whatever may be its merits for the purposes of domestic trad- 
ing, it no longer gives to European buyers the confidence and protec- 
tion which is necessary in a trade where the only guaranty for re- 
liable quality and condition in exchange for buyer's money is a paper 
certificate. Formerly, buyers in buying from the United States of 
America were able, as they still are in their dealings in grain with 
other exporting countries, to recover from shippers any damage they 
sustain owing to defects in quality or condition ; but since the intro- 
duction of the certificating system, this is no longer possible. Even 
after its introduction, indeed, until comparatively recent times, it was 
seldom found that any serious abuses arose and, trusting to their be- 
lief in the reliability of the grading system, buyers were willing to 
continue trading with America on less favorable terms than they de- 
manded elsewhere ; but, whether from increase of individual competi- 



302 CORN 

tion, or what is probably more important, the rivalry between the old- 
er ports and their smaller and more recently established competitors, 
there seems little doubt that the standard of grading has been low- 
ered, either temporarily, or in some cases permanently, in order to at- 
tract business from interior points. We in Europe feel that the bur- 
den of such departure from the more reliable and stricter method in 
force formerly, has been borne chiefly by European importers who, be- 
ing far away, have no power of protecting themselves against errors 
or worse in the grading methods of recent years. The result is that 
American grain suffers as regards price when in competition with 
grain from other countries. 

Robert A. Patterson, 
Chairman European International 
Committee on American Grain Certificates. 
"President United States of America, 

White House, Washington, U. S. A." 

A Criticism from Another Source. 

"Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te 
Rotterdam, 

Rotterdam, February 20, 1907. 
"Representative J. A. Gronna, Esq., 
Washington, D. C. 

"During the last Berlin Grain Conference held January 29th and 
30th of this year, by delegates of the German, Holland and Scandi- 
navian grain trade, the McCumber bill and the other bills of similar 
character introduced into Congress, were one of the chief subjects on 
the program. During many years, already, the American Grain In- 
spection certificates have been very unsatisfactory and immense losses 
were caused to the buyers on this side by the careless inspection of 
American grain shipped for export. It has been said by American op- 
ponents of the bills mentioned above that the fixing of grades on bet- 
ter and higher standards would injure the export trade, and that the 
European buyers will not buy anything but the grades which have al- 
ways been shipped and to which they are accustomed. 

"Many important firms in the im])orting centers on this side have 
absolutely given up importing American corn, taught by the experi- 
ence of several years, when a single parcel of this article, certified No 
2 mixed, sail mixed, etc., and still showing 30 to 90 per cent damage on 
arrival, caused a loss greater than the small gain made on many ship- 
ments together. They prefer to buy from Argentina, Russia and the 
Danube. A better inspection, however, and certificates which give suf- 



CDLLAIKRAI. RKADINO 303 

ficient guaranty that the grade has really been given in accordance 
with the grain's quality and condition, will induce these firms to take 
up the importation of American corn again. 

"We don't object to the export of inferior grain, but to the fact that 
the grades are not given according to the condition of the grain, so 
that the certificates are entirely nnreli;il)lc. I'erliaijs some l)uyers on 
this side want the inferior grain, but those who deal in the better quali- 
ties want to be sure that when they pay a better price for the higher 
^rade, the certificate gives them the guaranty to get this grade. 

"As soon as grades ail over the United States are uniform, and as 
soon as certificates of inspection will be reliable, the importation of 
American grain will certainly increase after the sharp decline which it 
has experienced. 

"Uniform Government inspection will bring a higher standard of 
export grain, induce the European importer to buy American grain 
more freely again, and ccjnsequently benetit the honest American ex- 
porter- at the cost of his dishonest competitor. It will greatly purify 
the trade and make an end to an unbearable situation. 
Yours truly, 
Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te Rotterdam, 
Rotterdam Corn Trade Association, 
A. Coaji, St., President, 
H. Van Randeryk, Secretary." 

COLLATERAL READING. The Annual Reports of the I'.oards 
of Trade til tlie ])rinci])al terminal and terminal-export markets. These 
may be secured by a])plication to the secretaries of the respective 
boards. 

Shippers' IManual, issued by the Chicago Board of Trade. 

The Book of Corn, by Herbert Myrick. 

Examining and Grading Grains, by Lyons and Montgomery. 

Year Books of the Department of Agriculture. 

Reports of the Bureau of Comm.erce and Navigation. 

Board of Trade Book, 1910. 

Annual Reports of Chicago Board of Trade. 

Farmer's Bulletin No. 168. 

Farmer's Bulletin No. .^84. 

American Co-operative Journal. 

(irain Dealer's Journal. 

Annual Report of Illinois Inspection Department. 

Farming Business^ ]\lay 1 and May 8, 1915. 

Price Current Grain Reporter. 



CHAPTER XIII 



BOARDS OF TRADE 



THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS 

The large grain and provision markets have established Boards 
of Trade. Their purpose and operation are here outlined, taking 
the facts from the Chicago Board of Trade, which is the largest and 
most important in the United States. 

THE BOARD OF TRADE OF THE CITY OF CHICAGO. On 
the 13th of March, 1848, thirteen men, representing the commercial 
interests of Chicago, organized the Board of Trade of the City of 
Chicago and laid down the fundamental principles and policies which 
have made this Exchange the greatest of its kind in the world, as well 
as a model for all similar exchanges since formed here and elsewhere, 
and have given this city premiership among the world's grain and 
provision markets. 

What the founders of this institution aimed to accomplish and 
what it has stood for during nearly two-thirds of a century of its cor- 
porate life, was thus enunciated in the Preamble of the Rules and 
By-laws : 

"To maintain a Commercial Exchange to promote uniformity in 
the customs and usages of merchants; to inculcate principles of jus- 
tice and equity in trade; to facilitate the speedy adjustment of busi- 
ness disputes; to acquire and disseminate valuable commercial and 
economic information ; and generally, to secure to its members the 
benefits of co-operation in the furtherance of their legitimate pursuits." 

So comprehensive and satisfactory is this expression of commer- 
cial, ethical and civic ideals, that it has never been found necessary to 
modify it in any particular, and it stands today as when it was first 
voiced, the fundamental article of the organic law of the Chicago 
Board of Trade, 

The charter members of this commercial exchange had been 
engaged in the infant trade of the city from the time of its incorpora 
tioHs They were enthusiastic believers in the future, full of courage, 
hope, and determination to live up to the opportunities which they 
•^aw around them on every hand awaiting development. These men 



HISTORY CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE 305 

had deep and abiding faith in the city which they had helped to found. 
They were men of sagacity and their foresight had in it the quaHty of 
intuition. They perceived that this city, situated on the peerless 
waterways of the Great Lakes and adjacent to the limitless fertile 
plains of the Mississippi Valley, was destined to be not only a com- 
mercial metropolis, but also a dominant force in the markets of the 
world. At that time, Chicago had a population of less than 30,000, 
the state of Illinois had only 157,000 people, and the United States 
had not yet attained a total of 13,000.000 population. Today, the pop- 
ulation of Chicago is, in round numbers, 2,500,000; of Illinois, 6,500,- 
000; of the United States approximately 100,000,000. Chicag<j was 
further removed from New York than we are now distant from the 
antipodes. Her transportation facilities were of the most meager sort 
and communication was by the slow-going stage, the infrequent sail- 
ing vessel or the laboring post-rider. 

If the "manifest destiny" of Chicago was to be worked out, it was 
necessary that there should be an organized effort to attract trade, to 
facilitate the transaction of business, and to reduce the hazards of 
commerce by building up a body of principles which should have the 
force of law, insuring righteous dealings between the buyer and the 
seller and banishing chicanery and deceit from the code of trading. 
Such was the mission of the Board of Trade of the City of Chicago. 

But the objects of these founders of Chicago's greatness were 
broader than mere self-interest. They grappled with large public 
problems from the very outset, striving in all possible ways to facili- 
tate profitable dealings with the farms of the Central Valley and the 
mills of the East, seeking to connect Chicago by telegraph with the 
eastern markets, and in many other ways fostering commercial ad- 
vancement. 

There is the best possible evidence of the energy with which the 
little voluntary organization prosecuted its work for the benefit of 
the city and its citizens; for, in the year after the first meeting in 
South Water street, the General Assembly of the State of Illinois 
enacted fostering laws relating to Boards of Trade. In 1850, the Leg- 
islature enacted a special charter for "The Board of Trade of the 
City of Chicago;" and nine years later, when events had proved that 
the grants thus conferred were inadequate for the proper working out 
of the mission of the institution, the General Assembly enacted a new 
charter law, giving the corporation the right of perpetual existence 
and clothing it with very broad power and authority to regulate the 
trading practices and commercial conduct of the affairs of this market. 



306 CORN 

Directly in line with the policy expressed, the Chicago Board of 
Trade introduced in 1858 the system of grain inspection which, as 
much as any other one thing, has contributed to the prestige of Chi- 
cago. This inspection system is still in force substantially as it was 
when devised by the administration of 1858, and it has been accepted 
as the model for virtually all the grain markets of the country, if not 
of the world. 

Prior to the enactment of the special charter of 1859, the Board 
had been restricted in its powers and limited in its resources, despite 
the financial assistance afforded by the city council ; but when the nev» 
charter was granted, the membership quickly increased to 725 and the 
treasury soon showed a comfortable surplus. Outgrowing rented 
quarters, the Board determined to erect an exchange building at La 
Salle and Washington streets. This first fixed abode of the Board 
was occupied in 1865 and remained until the fire of 1871 laid it in 
ashes. Within a year, the structure was rebuilt and was the center 
of the country's grain trade until 1885, when the present Board of 
Trade building was dedicated. 

*Today, with a membership of l,()2?, the Chicago Board of Trade is 
recognized as the dominant factor in the determination of the prices 
of grain and provisions. More than that, it is universally recognized 
as the most potent force extant for the maintenance of those principles 
of business morality and justice which its founders embodied in the 
preamble of sixty years ago. Its quotations are unquestioned, its sta- 
tistics unimpugned; its certificates of inspection, weights, and grading 
unchallenged ; and the word of its members as good as gold anywhere 
and at any time. 

-ORGANIZATION OF BOARD OF TRADE. The Board of 
Trade Organization consists of president, first vice-president^ second 
vice-president, secretary, treasurer, board of directors, and twenty- 
four standing committees besides the special committees. 

We have been prone to consider the Board of Trade simply as an 
organization for speculating in grain. As a matter of fact, the Board 
deals in practically all marketable products and securities. A closer 
acquaintance with such an organization should reveal some vital re- 
lationships with the gigantic machinery of marketing, which not only 
are interested in the buying and selling of products for profit, but 
which are giving assistance toward solving the great problems of mar- 
keting. 

*Annual Report of Chicago Board of Trade and "Board of Trade Book," 1910. 



HOARD OF IKADM l)i;i'AR IMKNTS 307 

Tn the or<>ani7.;iti(>n of the Chicago Board of Trade, we find at least 
four agencies (^r de])artments which are of invaluable consequence to 
the growers and shi|)i)ers of grain as well as to the buyers and sellers 
in the S]:)eculati\ c niarkcl. 

Legal Department. The first c^f these agencies is the legal de])art- 
nient. \\ hile surli a de])artmcnt is necessary in the inter])retalion 
and enforcement of the rules (»f the lioard of Trade among its mem- 
bers, and between members of the Uoard of Trade and parties with 
whom they are constantly dealing, its functions would not be fulfilled 
in the broader sense unless it went further than that. This (lei)artment 
has done more than that. Among the legal })roblems which it has 
sought to sohe during the last decade, none stands out so prominently, 
i>r has redounded more to the l)enefit of all concerned, than the fight 
against the bucket shops, ^^d^en this contest began, this nefarious 
and parasitical business was fast sucking the very life-blood out of the 
legitimate produce exchanges oi tlie country. Alone and at first un- 
aided, the Chicago Board of Trade began its fight, and now the once 
defiant and fiourishing business has been swept away. 

The Transportation Department. The work of the Transportation 
Department is under the general administration of the Transporta- 
tion Committee of the Board of Trade. The purpose of this depart- 
ment is: 

First — To secure the removal of discriminative rates, or unjust 
rules or regulations against the Chicago market. 

Second — To prevent, in the making of new rates, rules and regula- 
tions, the adoption of any that place the Chicago market at a disad- 
vantage with other markets. 

The transportation rates of any community are of such tremendous 
importance that some organized and et^cient method of protecting its 
interests are absolutely necessary. It is important to every shipper" 
to have such rates as will enable him to place his products into the 
central market in competition with all shippers. The Transportation 
Department of the Board of Trade devote their energies in the investi- 
gation and regulation of these shipping rates. 

The Weighing Department. One of the chief complaints of the 
average producer and shipper is unjust weights. The Weighing De- 
partment of the Board of Trade sends out scale inspectors to shipping 
points over the country with complete outfit for testing scales. All 



308 CORN 

public scales in Chicago are tested at least twice a year, and oftener 
if conditions require. 

Besides serving as a disinterested party in settling disputes in 
weighing and in testing scales, this department employs a force of 
deputy weighmen, deputy trackmen, supervisors, a policing or de- 
tective force and car tracers and office clerks, whose services are con- 
tributed to the grain trade. 

The deputy weighmen conduct the weighing at the various ele- 
vators, industries and transfer points. 

The deputy trackmen are stationed on the track floors of the large 
grain elevators to record the seals and condition of cars, and to super- 
vise the unloading and loading of grain. 

These weighmen and trackmen are under the direction of the super- 
visors, who are constantly visiting the elevators, and other points 
where weighing is done with a view to maintaining the best of con- 
ditions and service at all times. 

The policing and detective force looks after conditions existing in 
the various railroad and storage yards. This branch of the service 
also attends to the prosecution of those caught stealing grain from 
cars, or buying the stolen grain. The protection of this department is 
of immense value to the shippers for the railroad yards are situated in 
remote parts of the city where pilferers are naturally attracted. 

The car tracers follow the movements of cars when shortages trans- 
pire. This department is of invaluable service in securing evidence 
for the collection of claims, etc. 

The office clerks issue the certificates of weight, attend to the in- 
dexing of each car in the ledgers, and perform the general office work. 
A complete history of the treatment accorded each car of grain is 
kept in systematic files in the main office. This office is opened at 6 :30 
each morning in order that the consignees may secure the certificates 
of weight for their cars promptly. 

The weighing department is constantly sending out material to aid 
the producers and shippers in eliminating all conditions conducive to 
carelessness, waste and error. 

During the past year (1914) this department has supervised the 
weighing of 361,735 cars of produce, 108,623,667 bushels of grain to 
and from boats, 602,771,764 bushels of seed at freight and warehouses, 
and has attended to the investigation of weights, especially requested, 
for 1,289 cars. 



OBJECTS OF BOARD Ol- IKADK 309 

This department found and reported in the same year 26,011 cars, 
or 11.5 per cent of the total in-bound cars weighed, with leakage. 
Besides this their deputies went over eacli shipped car at the time of 
loading to see that it did not shcnv any e\idence of leakage l)ef()re it 
left the loading elevator. 

The number of people detected and arrested for ])ilfering cars in 
the railroad yards was 254. 

At interior or country loading stations, this department tested 74 
scales of which 46, or 62.2 per cent, were weighing incorrectly. In the 
Chicago district, 716 scales were tested of which 105, or 14.7 per cent, 
were in need of adjustment. 

Department of Grain Sampling and Seed Inspection. This depart- 
ment works in conjunction with the Illinois State Grain Inspection 
Department. A stafT of about thirty men is maintained. These men 
sample and inspect shipments of grain and seed coming into the cen- 
tral market. Often they send their men to other points to give help in 
settling disputes or other difficulties. They have men in the railroad 
yards and at all of the public warehouses to inspect grain, coming in 
and being shipped out. Much that has been accompHshed in estab- 
lishing uniform grades for grain might be credited either directly or 
indirectly to this department. 

During the year 1914, the inspection department sampled 123,537 
cars of grain, and sampled 29,000,543 bushels for lake shipment. 

OBJECTS OF THE BOARD OF TRADE ANALYZED.- The 

purpose of the Board of Trade has already been stated. Whatever 
objections have existed with reference to the Board of Trade in the 
past, or may exist at present time, it remains to be seen whether or 
not it is living up to the objects set forth. They are considered briefly 
in the following: 

First — To promote uniformity in customs and usages of merchants. 

The value of some uniform means of marketing all products is at once 

grasped. The buyer wishes at all times to have the advantage of the 

most favorable market, and the producer is constantly on the lookout 

for the highest price for his product. It would not be possible for 

either to keep posted in regard to the various markets if there were not 

some uniformity in customs and usages. The average person could 

not interpret intelligentlv the market quotations. The Boards of 
(111 



310 CORN 

Trade, especially the Exchange at Chicago, has probably done more 
than any other agency in establishing the customs now prevailing 
throughout the world in marketing. The rules and regulations 
originated and enforced by the large grain exchanges today perhaps 
have more influence on marketing than any other factor. 

Second — To inculcate the principles of justice and equity in trade. 
In the accomplishment of this purpose a code of rules and regulations 
has been established to govern all selling and buying through the ex- 
change. The Board of Trade through its legal department devotes 
much time to legislation affecting marketing. This department was 
most active in combating the "bucket shop" evil. Through its trans- 
portation department unjust and discriminatory freight rates are in- 
vestigated and adjusted. Through its weighing department the ques- 
tion of weights and measures is given constant attention. Through 
its inspection department the proper grading of grain is watched to 
prevent unscrupulous practices. Thus are inculcated the principles 
of justice and equity. 

Third — To facilitate speedy adjustment of business disputes. With- 
in the Board of Trade a special committee is provided to settle dis- 
putes between members. The decision of this Board of Arbitration 
must be respected. Matters of great consequence are settled quickly. 
Questions of proper sampling and grading of grain, accurate weighing, 
leakage and stealage in shipping, impartial transportation charges and 
the like are constantly arising, and the Board of Trade through its 
various departments contributes the best of expert service in settling 
such disputes. 

Fourth — To acquire and disseminate valuable and economic in- 
formation. Statistical information secured by the Board of Trade re- 
lates not only to the trade of Chicago or other local markets in grain, 
provisions, live stock, hay, flour, lumber, cured meats, dressed beef, 
butter, cheese, hides, grass seeds, etc., but also has reference to such 
commodities in other principal markets both domestic and foreign. 
This information, daily, hourly, and in many instances, instantaneous- 
ly, is at the service of the Board, which in turn transmit it to pro- 
ducers to aid them in marketing their produce intelligently, and to 
give instructions to their commission merchants as to the conduct of 
their consignment. 



HOCKS FOR IRADIXC; 31, 

Telegraphic facilities are provided fur the unhindered and prompt 
communication with shippers, customers, purchasers and consumers. 
Representatives of t'he press have constant and ready access to this 
information. .Ml prices are posted in the Exchange on the bulletin 
board and this information is sent broadcast. Besides all this an 
annual report is published, giving in the greatest possible complete- 
ness all information relating to the production and distribution of the 
various crops and other marketable products of the world. This 
great service bureau has become a necessity to the business world. 

Fifth. 1\:) secure for its members the benefits of co-operation in 
the furtherance of legitimate pursuits. Modern marketing has be- 
come as much of a specialized business as the question of production. 
Men w^ho have devoted their time and energy in acquainting them- 
selves with the problems of marketing are today a necessity in the 
disposal of most of our farm products. Any advantage to be found in 
co-operation then should be available when these men, including com- 
mission merchants, brokers, etc., are working together. This does 
not necessarily affect competition. It has already been pointed out 
that the success and profit of these men is determined by the degree of 
their ability to give satisfaction to the producer and shipper. They 
are all working for the business and competition between them is very 
keen. 

Hours for Regular Trading. "No trade or contract for the future 
delivery of grain or provisions shall be made, or offered to be made, 
by any member or members of this Association, in the exchange room 
of the Board or in any of the public streets, courts or passages in the 
immediate vicinity thereof, or in any hall, or exchange hall, or cor- 
ridor in any building located or fronting on such streets, courts or 
passages on any business day, except from 9:30 o'clock A. M. to 1 :1.S 
o'clock P. M., or upon any Saturday except from 9:30 o'clock to 12 
o'clock M. or on any day or that part of a day on which the Board 
shall hold no business session ; it being the object and intent of this 
rule that all such trading which may tend to the maintenance of a 
public market shall be confined within the hours above specified." 



312 CORN 

Terms Used in Trading.* "There are many terms of the Board of 
Trade of which the public has Httle understanding. Probably the 
ones most frequently used with the grain markets are 'Bulls' and 
'Bears'. A 'Bull' is one who believes in higher prices and who buys 
for an advance. A 'Bear' is one who looks for lower prices and who 
sells property which he does not possess but which he hopes to buy at 
a lower figure than he previously sold at. 

"This is called short selling and the party making the sale is termed 
a 'Short'. In other words the short seller is one who contracts to 
supply another with a certain amount of grain at a specified price at a 
future date and who believes that before the date of delivery has ar- 
rived he will be able to purchase this grain at a lower figure than he 
contracted to sell it for. When a 'Long' sells his property for more 
than he paid for it, the operation is called 'Realizing' or 'Profit 
Taking.' When he is forced to sell at a loss, it is termed 'Liquida- 
tion', 'Stop Loss Selling', or 'Unloading'. When a 'Short' buys at a 
lower price than he previously sold his property at, it is said that 
he is taking profits. When he is obliged to pay more than he sold for, 
or buy in at a loss, it is generally termed 'Covering'. 

"A 'Scalper' is a person, who, after he has made a profit on the 
grain he has bought or sold, closes out the trade and pockets his gains, 
repeating the operation several times. 

" 'Hedging' is an expression frequently used in the grain trade and 
refers to the operation whereby a 'cash grain' dealer lessens his risk 
by buying or selling 'futures'. For example, if a man or concern buys 
a certain amount of 'cash grain' that he or they have not an immedi- 
ate market for, an equal quantity will be sold in the speculative market, 
thus protecting the holder of the grain from a decline in prices. After 
a buyer for the 'cash grain' is found the speculative sale is disposed 
of by buying in the pit and the trade balanced up. This is called re- 
moving 'hedges'. 

"On the other hand, if a dealer in 'cash grain' makes a sale before 
he has the grain in his possession he buys an equal amount in the 
future market. Thus, if he is forced to pay more for his 'cash grain' 
than he contracted to sell it for, his loss is oflfset by his purchases in 
the pit. Naturally there are times when even these methods fail to pro- 
tect 'cash grain' dealers from losses, but it eliminates the possibility of 
heavy loss and enables the 'cash grain' man to work on a much smaller 
margin of profit than he could under other circumstances. 

*Taken from article by Mr. R. A. Meinke in "Fanning Business", May 1, 1915. 



TERMS USED IN TRADING 313 

"A 'Margin' is a certain amount of money deposited with a broker 
or commission house to protect trades made or to be made. Thus a 
man trading on a margin need advance only a small part of the value 
of the property he is buying or selling. For instance you may in 
normal times buy or sell 5,000 bushels of wheat on a 5-cent margin for 
$250 when perhaps the actual value of 5,000 bushels of wheat at that 
time is $5,000. However, if the market goes against you to the extent 
of your margin you must deposit additional money with the broker or 
commission concern to protect them, or close out your trade. 

"A 'Stop Order' is an order to close a trade at a specified price in 
order to limit losses. Such an order is automatically acted upon when 
the price stated thereon is reached, but in wild markets, such as have 
at times been witnessed, it is impossible to close the trade at a certain 
price and perhaps the 'Stop Order' will be executed at a i)rice 2 or 3 
cents away from the desired figure. 

"Among members of the Board of Trade and in market reports you 
hear much of the 'cables'. This refers to the foreign markets, particu- 
larly that at Liverpool. 

"Another expression much used on the Board of Trade is 'Visible 
Supply' and by this is meant the stocks of grain in public elevators in 
large cities and afloat on the canals, lakes and rivers. 

"There are many more expressions identified only with the grain 
trade, but we have dealt with the more important ones here, particu- 
larly as used in connection with the speculative branch of the business. 

"We often hear of the market being 'cornered'. By this is meant 
that a party or combination of parties have purchased more grain than 
the sellers or 'Shorts' will be able to deliver. They have created an 
artificial scarcity. The 'Shorts' finding themselves unable to get suf- 
ficient grain from the public elevators or from the country are forced 
to buy in the pit and pay what the 'Longs' demand. In the days of 
'Old Dutch', Pardridge and Leiter there was much of this done and it 
was then that the Board of Trade earned the notorious reputation that 
the general public is disposed to give it. However, in recent years 
there has been a determined effort to 'clean house' and under the 
present rules of the association it is impossible to 'corner' a market. 



314 CORN 

Now if a 'Short' believes that the market has been manipulated and 
the price has been forced unnaturally high he may default on his con- 
tract and a committee is appointed to determine the market value of 
the grain or product in question, and settlement is made between the 
seller and his buyer on that basis. 

"Another rule making it difficult to artificially raise prices is a re- 
cent amendment to the rules of the association whereby it is impos- 
sible to deliver grain in cars on the last few days of the contract month. 
Under the old rules the grain had to be in regular elevators to apply 
on contracts. Members of the Board of Trade recognize the fact that 
they have faults the same as in any other business and an element will 
always be found that will take advantage of and abuse liberties, but 
they are active in trying to correct evils and members whose acts have 
proved dishonorable and uncommercial have been expelled." 

"Futures" are commodities bought on contract for delivery, which 
may or may not actually be made at a later date. 

"Settlement" price is a convenient price made upon a given date 
(usually about the same as the price on the market on that date), by 
which settlements of contracts which are not delivered are made. 

"Delivery" price is a price fixed upon a given date (usually about 
the same as the price on the market on that day), by which the finan- 
cial settlements in regard to contracts actually delivered are made. 

The Sign Language of the Pit Traders. The visitor sitting in the 
gallery of Exchange Hall during a flurry in the grain pits on the floor 
rarely fails to express wonder that there can be any orderly and certain 
transaction of business in such a hurly-burly. But the trader in the 
middle of the excited throng sees in the turmoil, only the fierce deter- 
mination of his fellows to buy at the cheapest or to sell at the highest 
possible price. As to the intentness of any man in the pit at that 
moment, the practiced trader has no doubt whatever. Articulate 
speech is not only impossible, under such circumstances, but useless. 
The eye is quicker than the ear; and the signals given with the hand 
or by a gesture of the head mean as much as a telegram to the per- 
son addressed. Rarely does a mistake occur in this sign language 
trading. 



SIGN LANGUACJE OF THE PI I' 



315 



The sign-manual of the pit trader is simpHcity 
itself, and with a very little practice anyone can 
become adept at it ; but it calls for natural apti- 
tude to be a master of the strategy and general- 
ship demanded of a good l)r()ker. Corn ha\ing 
sold at 48 cents, for instance, a trader catches the 
eye of some one opposite in the pit who has 
50,000 bushels to sell, and partly by telepathy, 
partly by a motion of the clenched fist, signals 
that he will take the "50 corn" at 48. The seller, 
in reply, holds up his right hand with the index 
finger extended horizontally, indicating that he 
wants 48y cents. The buyer motions acceptance 
and signals back ;i. The two traders note on 
their cards "Sold 50 at i, Jones" and "Bot 50 at i. 
Smith." After they leave the pit they meet and 
check the operation. 

The hand being held horizontally, the 
clenched fist indicates the price in even cents. 
Each finger represents an added eighth of a cent 
up to five-eighths ; the extended hand with the 
fingers close together means three-quarters and 
the thumb only, signals seven-eigths; but the 
whole hand displayed vertically means 25,000 
bushels, each finger counting 5,000 bushels ; 
whether offered or being bid for, is shown by a 
slight motion of the hand to or from the trader 
making the signal. The official reporter stationed 
in the pit sees all the signaling, and party by ob- 
servation and partly on information given him by 
the traders, notes the latest price and gives it to 
a telegraph operator at his side to be "put on the 
ticker." Thus the price of grain is made every 
moment of the session and transmitted to all the 
markets of the world. When understood, the 
chaos of the pit becomes an intelligible language 
even to the nonparticipant. 




ven c«ni 




iplit Quotation 





316 CORN 

OTHER EXCHANGES. Aside from the Exchange at Chicago, 
there are others of prominence located at MinneapoHs, Duluth, Winni- 
peg, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha and Toledo. Almost every city of 
any size has a grain exchange, but they arc chiefly of local importance. 
These markets named are termed "Outside Markets" by the Chicago 
trade and their price movements are received by telegraph throughout 
the session and posted on blackboards. 

SPECULATION.* "The German Economist Cohn, defines spec- 
ulation as 'the struggle of well equipped intelligence with the blind 
power of chance.' Or, as Justice Holmes puts it, 'It is the self-ad- 
justment of society to the probable.' In simpler English, it is an act 
or series of acts based upon calculation, whereas gambling is simply 
an act based upon blind chance." 

It is a fundamental economic principle that all productive industry 
at the present time involves a certain amount of risk. By the leaders 
of the modern system of marketing, speculation is declared to be a 
necessity for the following reasons : 

(1) Production imposes ownership and ownership is inseparable 
from risk. This is true of live stock, grain, real estate or articles of 
almost any kind. Risks are innumerable and ever present. 

(2) No one knows the future. With all merchantable products 
the thought of possession is usually the increase in value. In dealing 
with the future needs of mankind one cannot foretell with absolute 
certainty all conditions affecting demand and supply. 

(3) In the case of grain crops, harvesting is confined within rather 
narrow limits with respect to time, while the demand for these prod- 
ucts is continuous. One can not harvest the crops simply as needed. 
At the time of harvesting there must be a surplus to meet the demand 
until the next harvest. This surplus must then ])e adapted to the 
future demand. In addition to this a large per cent of the farmers, 
including tenants and those who have heavy obligations coming due 
at a certain time are forced to sell promptly after harvest. 

(4) Shippers cannot ship grain at once. For instance the country 
grain buyer pays cash for grain. He is not able to ship this at once 
so he must depend upon a future market. Without a definite future 

* Hoard of Trade Book. 1910. 



BENEFITS OF SPECULATION 317 

market he cuuld afford to liandle grain only by allowing a wide mar- 
gin for profit. 

(5) At certain times of the year the farmer lias food supplies in 
excess of the needs of his local community, while in districts where 
farming is replaced by other industries as manufacturing, etc., not 
enough food is produced to meet the demand. The problem of get- 
ting this surplus to the places where needed involves time and risk. 

(6) Through the central markets grain is bought and sold in 
large quantities. Without our present system of marketing it would 
be necessary to secure this grain from a considerable number of in- 
dividual farmers or producers. In either case the element of time in 
getting such quantities of grain together must be considered. 

The Benefits of Speculation. This has reference especially to the 
practice of dealing in futures. 

(1) It creates a continuous and open market and gives a daily cash 
sale for grain. As long as there are men who in their study of supply 
and demand think they can make a profit in buying grain and dis- 
posing of it later we have a steady sale for the grain. The value of 
this continuous market can hardly be overestimated. 

(2) More stable prices are created. Under present conditions the 
entire surplus crops are not immediately upon harvest thrown upon 
the market, thereby depressing prices, nor just preceding harvest are 
prices raised to exorbitant level on account of vanishing supply. 

(3) Discounts changes in supply and demand. If the price of 
grain for the future market is high it can indicate but one thing, 
under normal conditions, that the supply will be small. It therefore 
serves to adjust the demand to the probable supply. Wastefulness 
and extravagance in the face of such a shortage is averted, and one is 
not led to horde grain in the face of a large supply when it would have 
to be sold on a declining market. The future prices are an indication 
of existing supply. 

(4) Grain can be handled with a minimum of expense to the 
producer. The margin of profit in handling grain is lower than is 
exacted in the handling of any other business. Under the conditions 
of the past it was necessary to allow a margin of about ten cents on 
the bushel in handling grain, but at present it is handled on an 
average probably not to exceed one per cent of present values. 



318 



CORN 







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IN THE PIT 

(Picture taken l)y Robert H. Moulton) 

FUTURES. It is difficult to realize the vast volume of business 
transacted on the Board of Trade and Produce Exchanges of this 
country. To one who hears only of speculation and manipulation, the 
Exchanges seem to be founded for no other purpose than to provide 
facilities for speculation. Speculation is the sensational feature of 
the trade, and the newspapers devote the most space to that class 
of news, for the reason that it is sensational. But speculation is a 
mere incident of the grain and cotton trade, and grew up after the 
exchange had been established for the purpose of bringing buyers and 
sellers of cash property together at one common point. 

As the volume of cash transactions increased and facilities were 
provided for storage of products at market centers, contracting for 
future delivery developed gradually. At first these contracts were 
irregular as to quantity, time of delivery and grade of goods, but they 
slowly assumed uniformity and the Exchanges, recognizing their 
validity and value, regulated them by rules. It was not until early in 
the 6o's that these "future-delivery" contracts became general in the 
grain trade and the Chicago Board of Trade dignified them by adopt- 



FUTURES 319 

ing rules to govern and enforce them. The system gradually devel- 
oped and brought about wonderful changes in the methods of mer- 
chants and millers. 

Prior to the establishment of trading for future delivery, as now 
practiced on the Chicago Board of Trade, every grain dealer was a 
speculator in cash grain, with all the uncertainties of the markets to 
contend with. Today he is a merchant working on an assured margin 
of profit, by reason of his ability to protect himself by sales for future 
delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade. This is illustrated in a 

simple manner. The grain dealer at , Iowa, buys 10,000 

bushels of ear corn in January of the farmers and stores it in his corn 
crib. It will not be fit to shell and ship until the following May. He 
orders his commission merchant on the Chicago Board of Trade to 
sell 10,000 bushels of corn for May delivery. The commission mer- 
chant makes the sale and reports back the prices. The dealer has 
thus secured his profit, although it is five months before he can de- 
liver the corn in Chicago, that length of time being required for the 
corn to cure. He in turn pays the farmer cash for his corn, v/ho can 
then pay rent on his land and buy machinery for the spring work. 
Now, the dealer has made what the public call a speculative transac- 
tion, viz., a trade for future delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade, 
and yet he is the very opposite of the speculator. Suppose he had not 
sold the corn for May delivery, but had taken all the risk of chances 
in the market for five months, no one would think of calling him a 
speculator, and yet that is exactly what he would be. 

Millers and grain dealers throughout the world trade in "futures" 
in Chicago, in order to avoid speculating in their business, on exactly 

the same theory as the dealer at , Iowa, sells May corn in 

Chicago, against the ear corn in the crib at home. If you can find a 
miller with 1,000 or 10,000 barrels of flour on hand that had not been 
sold, you will find that he has wheat "futures" sold (usually in Chi- 
cago) to the extent of about five bushels a barrel. As soon as he can 
sell the flour he will buy back the "future." He may sell the flour at 
50 cents a barrel less than it cost to grind it and yet he will not lose 
a cent. On the contrary, he will save his manufacturing profit at 10 
to 25 cents a barrel, for his sale of the wheat "future" has protected 
him. Wheat and flour prices move together, and when he sells his 
flour at 50 cents a barrel loss, he at the same time buys back the wheat 
"future" at 10 to 12 cents a bushel profit — the wheat has declined in 
the same proportion as the flour. Or, the miller may reverse this 
operation and buy wheat "futures" and sell flour which he has not on 



320 CORN 

hand, to be shipped sixty or ninety days hence. He either receives the 
cash wheat on the "future" when the contract matures, and grinds it 
into flour to fiill his sale, or he buys other wheat better suited to his 
requirements and sells out the "future" as fast as he acquires the 
necessary "spot" wheat. In the meantime, wheat prices may change 
25 cents a bushel without disturbing the miller, who, when he pur- 
chased the wheat "future" and sold the flour, had secured his margin 
of profit. Ask any miller why he trades in "futures" and he will tell 
you it is done to avoid speculating in his business. 

The grain dealers and exporters who carry stocks of grain or make 
sales of grain to be shipped in the future, are in the same position as 
the miller. You will find them constantly buying and selling "fu- 
tures" in order to avoid speculation in their business. The packer 
and provision merchant resort to contracts for future delivery for the 
same purpose. 

All of these transactions in "futures" made by millers, grain deal- 
ers, and packers are the same as the transactions ordinarily known a» 
"speculative transactions," and at the same time they are made in the 
matter of their execution and settlement they are in every way iden- 
tical. If a speculator desires to buy 5,000 bushels of wheat for May 
delivery, he buys it at the same place and in the same manner as 
does the miller who wants the wheat to grind. Both transactions are 
subject to the same rules and customs. Both parties must be pre- 
pared to receive and pay for the property at the maturity of the con- 
tract and, in the eyes of the law, the contract of the speculator is as 
legitimate as that of the miller. 

The trading in futures has been criticised by those ignorant of its 
great aid to agriculture and commerce from the day when the increase 
of yield of farm products in the West and South made it necessary to 
buy and sell for delivery at a future time, in order to facilitate the 
carrying and distributing of the farmers' surplus crops at a minimum 
of cost and risk for the months intervening between harvests. 

Why and How Futures are Settled Without Delivery. The strong- 
est weapon in the hands of those opposed to futures has been the 
argument that every purchase and sale for future delivery is not 
finally consummated or settled by the actual delivery of the property 
on the contract at maturity. 

All contracts for future delivery on the Board are made in the 
same manner and are exactly similar as to quantity or unit. Except 
in wheat and flaxseed, where there is a small volume of trade m 
1,000-bushel lots, the unit is 5,000 bushels. Thus, if the broker "A" 



FUTURES 321 

buys from broker "B" 25,000 bushels of corn for May delivery, he has 
really bought five 5,000-bushel lots, and both parties would so enter 
the transaction on their books. Delivery must be made in lots of 
5,000 bushels and settlement can be effected for 5,000 bushels or 
any number of 5,000 bushel lots up to the total amount of the 
contract. The same holds true in all transactions. When a trade 
of 100,000 bushels is reported, it means twenty lots of 5,000 bushels 
each. A broker may receive orders from five clients at the same 
time to buy May corn. Clients "A" and "B" and "C" order 
10,000 bushels each; client "D" 15,000 bushels and client "E" 5,000 
bushels, aggregating 50,000 bushels. The broker steps into the corn 
pit and bids for 50,000 bushels, buying it all of one party. He then 
divides the purchase among his clients; "A," "B" and "C" each get 
two 5,000-bushel lots. "D" gets three 5,000-bushel lots and "E" one 
5,000-bushel lot. The party of whom the broker bought has really 
sold him ten 5,000-bushel lots and so enters it on his books ; although 
at the time the trade was made, it was spoken of as a 50,000-bushel 
trade. This is a feature of the trading which must be clearly under- 
stood by the student before he can grasp the system of settlements. 

All contracts being uniform as to quantity, they are substituted one 
for the other, and members of the Board acting as commission mer- 
chants do not try to preserve the identity of the contracts made for 
any particular clients. In place of doing so, and for the privilege of 
substituting similar contracts, they guarantee to their clients the ful- 
fillment of the contracts, a course not usually adopted by agents when 
acting for principals. The right to substitute contracts is the consid- 
eration for the guarantee. 

We will now take five imaginary commission merchants. Brown, 
Jones, Smith, Day and Lee. They all receive and execute orders for 
the purchase and sale of grain for future delivery on the Board of 
Trade. Their clients are millers, exporters, eastern dealers, buyers of 
grain at western points, speculators, and investors. The clients send 
orders from day to day as their business requirements or desire to 
speculate may dictate. Some of these orders are to buy, some to sell. 
We shall assume that they are all in corn for May delivery and that 
the contracts are entered into in January. Brown receives an order 
to buy 5,000 bushels of May corn. Stepping into the corn market or 
pit, he buys the quantity ordered of Jones, one of the other commis- 
sion merchants. If either Brown or Jones elects, there is but one way 
to settle this contract; that is, by actual delivery by Jones to Brown 
some time in the month of May. Or, if Brown does not sell 5,000 



322 CORN 

uushels of May corn, settlement would be impossible, except by Jones 
procuring the actual corn and delivering it to Brown in the month of 
May. In other words, both parties to the contracts must first have 
a purchase and a sale of May corn, and secondly, must consent to a 
settlement before any contracts can be closed, except by delivery. 

But there is a third and more essential condition which must exist 
before the first two are of consequence, and they are not sought or 
considered until it is discovered that this third condition exists. It 
is the all important reason for settlement without delivery and is the 
mere fact that delivery would be idle and unnecessary. Therefore 
only such contracts for future delivery are settled without delivery of 
the actual grain, as the parties to the contracts may agree to settle 
after having discovered that delivery would be an idle form. 

When Delivery is Unnecessary. When a purchase and sale (there 
must be both a buyer and seller) for future delivery is made on the 
Chicago Board of Trade, it must be made with the intention on the 
part of the purchaser to receive and on the part of the seller to deliver 
the commodity. Subsequent events may render delivery unnecessary 
and settlement before the maturity of the contract desirable without 
jeopardizing the legality of the contract. But this cannot be foreseen 
and the buyer and seller must calculate to be prepared to receive and 
deliver the cash commodity at maturity of the contract. 

Brown, having bought in January 5,000 bushels of May corn of 
Jones, as previously stated, enters the transaction on his books, and 
in the usual course of business Jones would deliver him the actual 
corn some time in the month of May. But a week later Brown re- 
ceived an order to sell 5,000 bushels of May corn, and stepping into 
the corn pit offers the grain for sale, and Jones buys it from him. 
Now, we have Brown and Jones in the position of having bought of 
and sold each other 5,000 bushels of May corn. Brown, who origin- 
ally bought of Jones, has now sold to Jones, and Jones, who originally 
sold to Brown, has now bought of Brown. Suppose it were illegal to 
settle future contracts, except by the delivery of the actual grain, 
where would Brown and Jones be? Which one would make the in- 
itial delivery of the grain? Each would say to the other when May 
arrived, "Deliver me that 5,000 bushels of corn I have bought of you, 
so that I can deliver it back to you and thus settle your sale to and 
purchase from me and my sale to and purchas'^' from you," and each 
would answer the other, "When you deliver me the corn you have sold 
me, I will deliver it to you." Could a more absurd condition exist in 



FUTURES 323 

the business? Yet this is exactly the kind of a transaction that gives 
rise to the criticism that "futures" are settled without delivery. 

Brown and Jones have no trouble in settling this contract. If Jones 
sold the corn to Brown at 45 cents a bushel and subsequently bought 
it of him at 46 cents a bushel, he has a loss in the transaction of i cent 
a bushel, or $50.00, which he pays to Brown immediately and the con- 
tracts involved are settled. 

We will now go one step further and note a more complicated 
settlement, which will involve more than two brokers. 

In the month of January, Brown buys of Jones 5,000 bushels of 
May corn; on the following day, Jones buys 5,000 bushels of May corn 
of Smith. The purpose of these transactions is that in the month of 
May, Smith will deliver 5,000 bushels of corn to Jones, who in turn 
will deliver it to Brown, thus fulfilling the contracts. But, if in the 
course of business extending over the period between January (when 
the contracts above mentioned were made) and May (when the con- 
tracts mature), it should so happen that Smith should buy 5,000 
bushels of May corn from Brown, the three brokers would be in the 
same position that Brown and Jones were in on the first transaction 
referred to, where each had the corn bought and sold to the other. 
To make this more clear: 

Brown has bought of Jones. 

Jones has bought of Smith. 

Smith has bought of Brown. 
Putting it another way: 

Brown has sold to Smith. 

Smith has sold to Jones. 

Jones has sold to Biown. 

It will be noticed that, no matter how you put these transactions, 
they begin and end with the same party, and it would be the same in 
case any of the brokers delivered corn, for it would come back to him 
who delivered it, after passing through the hands of the other two. 
Assuming, for example, that Smith delivered the 5,000 bushels of corn, 
it would pass from one to another as follows: 

Smith delivered to Jones. 

Jones delivered to Brown. 

Brown delivered to Smith. 

So that Smith would get back the corn and the delivery would 
have accomplished only the settlement of the contracts as among the 
three parties. If each of the three parties received and paid for the 
corn and in turn delivered it out and received a check for it, as they 



324 CORN 

would have to do in this case, and assuming the average price to be 45 
cents, each party would collect and pay out $2,250; in other words, 
they would handle $4,500. So that the aggregate received and paid 
out would be $13,500 to settle these three transactions in which the 
difference might be a very small sum. But the delivery spoken of 
would not occur for the simple reason that Smith would wait for 
Brown to deliver the corn to him so that he (Smith) could deliver it 
to Jones, while Brown would wait for Jones to deliver the corn to him 
so that he (Brown) could deliver it to Smith. 

It will be seen that delivery on these contracts is not only unneces- 
sary, but also impossible, except by borrowing the cash corn for the 
purpose of going through an idle form. 

Before showing how these trades are finally settled, we will carry 
the illustration a little further. The case of Brown, Jones and Smith 
can be extended so as to involve a large number of brokers. It is 
frequently discovered that as many as twenty brokers are in the same 
position in one transaction as Brown, Jones and Smith were; that is, 
they must settle without actual delivery, as every one of them has it 
bought and sold and each is waiting for the party he has bought it 
from to deliver it to him. If they should fail to investigate and discover 
the true state of the trades, every one of the twenty brokers would 
default on his contract by reason of their all waiting for an impossible 
or at least, improbable delivery. 

To escape the possibility of becoming involved in trades that 
would result in default, to facilitate their business by discovering and 
settling these unnecessary contracts, and to collect and pay all differ- 
ences on these closed contracts, every broker in Chicago who trades 
in futures, employs a clerk whose duty it is to watch the transactions 
closely and see that they are settled immediately, in case it develops 
that delivery on the contract is unnecessary for the reasons just 
described. 

Every trade for future delivery made on the Chicago Board of 
Trade (unless the seller defaults on the contract, and defaults are 
very rare), is finally settled by the delivery of the commodity con- 
tracted for, except such trades as get into a position that renders deliv 
ery unnecessary, as in the cases already set forth. 

Having noted "when delivery is unnecessary" and settlements are 
effected by the payment of the differences between the contract prices, 
we will now give a short explanation of how deliveries are made; for 
on all contracts for future delivery, there is an actual delivery (de- 



FUTURES 326 

faults, which are rare, excepted), unless it develops that delivery is 
unnecessary. 

How Deliveries are Made, Deliveries on contracts for future 
delivery of grain, flaxseed and provisions entered into on the Chicago 
Board of Trade, are made by warehouse receipts for the commodities 
In warehouses declared "regular" by the Board. Deliveries of grain 
and flaxseed are made in lots of 5,000 bushels (except a few in wheat 
and flax in 1,000-bushel lots), provisions in lots of 250 packages and 
50,000 pounds. 

All contracts upon which delivery is unnecessary are eliminated as 
fast as they are discovered, so that when the month of delivery arrives, 
it finds only the contracts open upon which delivery must be made. 
Sellers begin to deliver the commodities on the first business day oi 
the month at 8:30 A. M., and oftentimes deliveries are very frequent 
throughout the month. 

Warehouse receipts deliverable on the contracts are negotiable and 
great care is necessary to prevent their loss. If it were not for the 
manner in which the deliveries are made, the parties to the contracts 
would be subjected to great loss and annoyance by reason of lost or 
misplaced warehouse receipts and unnecessary clerical expense. 

Experience and necessity have developed an almost perfect system 
of delivery, which eliminates all danger of loss of warehouse receipts 
and simplifies the work. At 8:30 A. M. on the first business day of 
each month, deliveries are made by notice on the Exchange Hall of 
the Board of Trade. Every party having grain, provision, or flaxseed 
contracts open for that month must be represented. Those traders 
having commodities to deliver hold the receipts in their offices, but 
they hand notices to the parties to whom they have made sales, noti- 
fying them to call and pay for the property and get the warehouse 
receipts. The party receiving the notice either holds the notice and 
sends a certified check to the party making the delivery, who then 
turns over the warehouse receipts to him. or if he has a contract of 
sale with some other member, he passes the notice by endorsement to 
the third party, who can, in turn, do the same thing; so that a notice 
of delivery may go through twenty-five or thirty hands, until it finally 
reaches a party who, for some reason, desires possession of the com- 
modity. This last party then pays for it and all the intermediate par- 
ties settle by receiving or paying the differences between the con 
tract prices — in other words, the profits and losses in the trades. 

This system of delivery saves the paying out and collecting by 
each party of the full \-alue of the commodity delivered, as well as the 



}26 



CORN 












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FUTURES 32? 

passing of the warehouse receipt from office to office. 'I'hus. deliveries 
that would, involve immense sums of money and two or three days 
time are consummated in forty-five minutes by paying for the property 
once. 

After the first delivery day, deliveries can be made by warehouse 
receipts from office to office each morning, but in the afternoon of 
each business day, deliveries are made by notice in the Exchange Hall, 
the same as on the morning of the first business day of the month. 
The delivery notice is a complete description of the receipts and the 
contract on which they are to b^ delivered. Any person to whom the 
notice is delivered can procur*. the receipts by holding the notice and 
sending a check for the value of the commodity to the party issuing 
the notice. Every notice is back to the office of the issuer within an 
hour after deliveries close, accompanied by a certified check, and the 
warehouse receipts are surrendered to the party thus paying for them 

The volume of these deliveries is at times beyond comprehension. 
In making an investigation of one lot of 1,200,000 bushels of wheat, 
sent out by a tirm on notice, it was found that the 240 notices of 
5,000 bushels each had passed through an average of twenty hands 
before they finally lodged and were paid. Thus, contracts for 24,000, 
000 bushels of wheat were settled by delivery of this lot of wheat in 
forty-five minutes (the delivery runs from 8:30 to 9:15 A. AI.). 

As there were between five and ten millions of bushels of grain 
delivered that morning, the contracts settled by delivery were evi- 
dently between one hundred and two hundred million bushels. If 
that volume of business had been carried from office to office, it 
would have involved much time, labor, expense and delay, all unneces- 
sary. Every person receiving the notice had absolute control of the 
disposition of the warehouse receipts during the tune the notice was 
in his hands ; for it passes from hand to hand and can be stopped by 
any party who receives it. 

Settlements, and Settlement and Delivery Prices. Contracts set- 
tled for the reason that delivery is unnecessary, must be uniform in 
all respects. If only two parties are involved, the settlement is very 
simple; the one having a loss in the transaction, pays it to the other 
who has a profit. But when more than two parties are involved, the 
collecting of profits and payment of losses are more complicated and 
difficult of explanation, al'.Iiough differing not the least in princ:-,)le. 
The parties having losses pay, and the parties having profits collect 



328 



CORN 



them, and in every settlement, whether it involves two or twenty 
parties, the losses equal the profits. 

To illustrate this, let us use an imaginary settlement involving five 
brokers. The settlement is of 5,000 bushels of May corn and might 
occur any time after trading in that "future" becomes general. 

Brown has sold to Jones at 46 cents. 
Jones has sold to Smith at 44 cents. 
Smith has sold to Day at 47 cents. 
Day has sold to Lee at 43 cents. 
Lee has sold to Brown at 48 cents. 

A little figuring shows that Jones, Day and Brown have respec- 
tively 2 cents, 4 cents, and 2 cents a bushel loss, aggregating 8 cents a 
bushel, in their transactions ; while Smith and Lee each have a profit 
— Smith of 3 cents and Lee of 5 cents a bushel, a total of 8 cents a 
bushel, equal to $400 on 5,000 bushels. When it is discovered that 
the trades are in the position indicated and delivery is unnecessary, 
and all the parties agree to settle the transactions, the next step is to 
transfer the $400 owed by Jones, Day and Brown, to Smith and Lee. 

An extremely simple method in doing this has been in vogue for 
twenty years. Each day a "settlement price," or more properly a "fig- 
uring" price is fixed. It has nothing to do with the real settlement of 
the contracts, being a mere convenience. In settling this 5,000 bushels 
of May corn, as among the five brokers, the settlement or figuring 
price for the day on which the settlement is made will be used as a 
figuring basis. Taking 45 cents as the settlement price, we get the 
following result: 

SETTLEMENT 5,000 BUSHELS MAY CORN. 
SETTLEMENT PRICE 45 CENTS. 



Sales 


Loss 


1 Profit 


Brown 








to Jones 


at 46 cents 


Jones 2 cents per bushel 




to Smith 


at 44 cents 




Smith 3 cents per bushel 


to Day 


at 47 cents 


Day 4 cents per bushel 




to Lee 


at 43 cents 




Lee 5 cents per bushel 


to Brown 


at 48 cents 


Brown 2 cents per bushel 






Total 


8 cents per bushel 


8 cents per bushel 






($400.00) 


! ($400.00 



You will notice that in the case of Day, who has a loss of 4 cents 
a bushel ($200.00) to pay, he has the corn bought of Smith, who has 
a profit of 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) to collect; and he (Day) has sold 
it to Lee, who has a profit of 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) to collect, and 



FUTURES 329 

the question would arise immediately as to which of these parties 
Day should pay his $200.co loss to, if it were not for the figuring price. 
Day's clerk figures that having bought the corn of Smith at 47 cents 
and sold it to Lee at 43 cents, he must settle on a basis of 45 cents 
with each, which he does by paying Smith down to 45 cents, which 
would be 2 cents a bushel ($100.00), and paying Lee up to 45 cents, 
or 2 cents a bushel ($100.00). Thus Day has paid his loss direct to 
the parties to the contracts with whom he had the trades. All the 
other parties to the contracts pay and collect to this common price, 
so that each pays his whole loss or collects his whole profit in a sys- 
tematic and simple manner. 

Jones, who has bought of Brown at 46 cents and sold to Smith at 44 
cents, pays each to 45 cents, i cent a bushel in both instances. Brown, 
who has sold at 46 cents to Jones and bought at 48 cents of Lee, pays 
Lee 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and collects i cent ($50.00) of Jones. 
So that each party settles with the parties with whom he originally 
made the transactions, on the basis of an imaginary figure which is 
every day fixed at about the average price for the day. 

The using of the "settlement" or "figuring" price has the efifect of 
enabling each party to the settlement to settle direct with the two 
parties with whom he has made the transactions, on the same basis 
that he would settle with them in case of a settlement wherein only 
two parties were involved. It simply reduces the transactions to the 
same basis as a trade wherein the purchaser had sold back to the 
seller, at the "settlement" price and the seller has bought back of the 
purchaser at the "settlement" price. In other words, it works out the 
same as if Jones, who had bought it of Brown at 46 cents sold it back 
to him at 45 cents and paid his loss of i cent a bushel ($50) to Brown, 
and then having sold it to Smith at 44 cents bought it back of him 
(Smith) at 46 cents, another loss to Jones of i cent a bushel ($50), 
which he pays to Smith, and so through the whole list of persons in- 
terested in the settlement as follows : 

Brown sold to Jones at 46 cents. . . ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ j^^^^ 

Jones sold to Brown at 45 cents. . . 

Jones sold to Smith at 44 cents. . . ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ 

Smith sold to Jones at 45 cents 

Smith sold to Day at 47 cents ^^.^^^ ^^jj^^^^ ^ cents of Day. 

Day sold to Smith at 45 cents 

Day sold to Lee at 43 cents y ^^ collects 2 cents of Day. 

Lee sold to Day at 45 cents 

Lee sold to Brown at 48 cents j^ee collects 3 cents of Brown. 

Brown sold to Lee at 45 cents 



330 CORN 

Loss 
So that Brown, whose loss is 2 cents a bushel, has paid Lee 

3 cents loss and collected of Jones i cent Net 2c 

Jones, whose loss is 2 cents a bushel, pays i cent to Brown 

and I cent to Smith Net 2c 

Day, whose loss is 4 cents, pays 2 cents to Smith and 2 

cents to Lee Net 4c 

Total 8c per bu. 

It will be noticed that Smith and Lee have collected respectively 
3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) direct from 
the parties with whom they had the trades, although in no case is the 
loss of any one of the debtors the same as the profit of either Smith 
or Lee. In every case in which a settlement is made in place of an 
unnecessary delivery — and no agreement can be made except on that 
basis — the result will always be the same, the losses equalizing the 
gains. 

Delivery Price. Deliveries on contracts, when the warehouse re- 
ceipts are passed from office to office, are paid for at the price of the 
contract as originally made between the brokers. When delivery is 
effected by the "delivery'' notice, as explained heretofore, it is made 
at a "delivery" price fixed each day, as in the case of the "settlement" 
price, and the commodity is figured, for the purpose of delivery, at 
that price. The party receiving the commodity pays for it, not at the 
price at which he bought it, but at the "delivery" price. If the "deliv- 
ery" price is less than the price of the contract on which he received 
it, he pays the difference to the party from whom he bought, but if it 
(the delivery price) is in excess of the purchase price, he collects the 
excess or difference from the party from whom he has bought it. This 
plan is followed by each party who received and delivered out the 
"delivery" notice; they use the delivery price as a figuring price and 
pay the difference in exactly the same manner as they would when 
using the "settlement" price in case of settlement without delivery. 

Even the party sending out the notice receives payment at the 
delivery price and he collects of or pays to the person to whom, his 
sale was made and who first received the "delivery" notice from him, 
the difference between this contract price and the "delivery" price. The 
"delivery" notice may be passed through any number of brokers and 
the contracts settled at the delivery price. The following morning, 
the brokers pay and collect the differences between the price at which 
thcry originally made the purchase and sale and the "delivery" price. 

The "delivery" price is like the "settlement" price, a mere figuring 



BUCKET SHOPS 331 

basis for the convenience of the traders. Neither has the slightest rela- 
tion to the real transaction, or its settlement or delivery ; but after 
settlement is agreed to, or delivery made, they furnish a simple, sys 
tematic, economic and uniform basis for the payment of balances due 
to or payable by the brokers, without changing the result one iota. If 
there were neither "settlement" nor "delivery" prices fixed, the busi- 
ness would be handled exactly the same as it now is, with the excep- 
tion that the payments of balances would have to be made in a cum- 
bersome and unsatisfactory manner. 

BUCKET SHOPS. 

A bucket shop is an establishment nominally and ostensibly for the 
transaction of grain, cotton, or stock exchange business. Ihis trans- 
action is a mere pretense. The bucket shop exercises no commercial 
function and is devoid of every commercial feature. The proprietor 
with or without the consent of the patron, takes one side of every 
deal that is made in his place, the patron taking the other. No article 
is bought or sold in the public market and charges or commissions are 
exacted for no services rendered. The market quotations posted in 
an up-to-date bucket shop are similar to those posted in a legitimate 
broker's office. The broker posts them for the purpose of showing 
what the market has been on the exchange, as a matter of information. 
The bucket-shop keeper posts them as the terms upon which its 
patrons place their bets. The margins deposited with bucket shop 
proprietors by the patrons, are nothing but the patrons' stakes to the 
wager, and are appropriated by the proprietor when the lluctuations 
of the price on the exchange, whose quotations are the basis of the 
bet, reach the limit of the deposit. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Speculation Not a Fine Art, By E. W. Wagner. 

Reports of the Boards of Trade of the several principal markets. 

"Board of Trade Book", 1910. 

The Farming Business, May 8. 1*)15. 

"Gold Bricks of Speculation." by John Hill, jr. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN 

The Commercial Products of Corn May Be Classified as Follows : 

1. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL. 

A. By mechanical and milling methods. 

B. By mechanical and chemical processes. 

C. By fermentation. 

2. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. 

3. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF. 

A. From the stalk. 

B. From the leaves. 

C. From the husks. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL* 

BY MECHANICAL AND MILLING MEANS.— Corn Meal. 

The early American mill stone produced a coarse meal from corn. 
This form of meal contained hull, endosperm and germ. Rancidity 
often resulted from the presence of an excess of oil. Hence, as soon 
as the milling of corn meal for commercial purposes was developed, 
the elimination of the germ was found necessary to facilitate storing 
and shipping. In this process, heavy rollers are used which are set 
far enough apart to allow a kernel to pass through flatwise. Very 
sharp, but slight steel projections neatly peel the germ from the 
kernel, which has previously been softened and hulled. From the 
rollers, the entire mass is passed into water. The germs rise and are 
taken off and thoroughly dried. The remainder of the kernel is 
ground into different grades of corn meal. The classification of corn 
meal is made according to color, white or yellow; and graded by its 
structure into coarse, medium and fine. 

Some companies at the present time, put out a "whole meal" during 
the winter months for a select trade and where it is to be consumed 
shortly after being manufactured. Very few people understand the 

*Corn Products Company of Chicago. 



CORN MEAL 33» 

real value of this form of meal as compared with the commercial form 
commonly found upon the market. Whole corn meal includes the 
germ, which contains 82 per cent of the entire oil content of the ker- 
nel, thus adding considerably to the food value. 

Corn Meal as a Food. Corn or maize meal is prepared as food in 
many different ways. In Ireland, it is made into a sort of porridge 
called "stirabout," or in the more expressive phraseology of America, 
"mush." In Northern Italy and South Tyrol it is prepared in a sim- 
ilar way, but with the addition of cheese and other ingredients. Maize 
meal or corn meal is made as above stated, by removing the hull and 
germ, A white and yellow meal is prepared, the former in greater 
quantities because its color is more attractive to the purchaser. In 
food value, however, there is no difference. Fine maize meal is more 
gritty than wheat flour, but when mixed with the latter, its presence 
can hardly be detected. The comparative cheapness of maize flour is 
an inducement to millers to adulterate wheat flour with it, and this is 
already being done to some extent in America and France. Flour so 
adulterated yields fewer loaves than an equal quantity of pure wheal 
flour, and the bread produced is more moist than wheat bread and has 
a tendency to be sodden. An addition of 10 per cent of maize flour 
is calculated to mean a reduction of five loaves on the sack. Owing 
to the absence of gluten, this meal cannot be used to make ordinary 
bread, but it is often baked into cakes of various sorts. The "johnny'' 
(corruption of journey) cakes of North America are unleavened and 
are made of a rather coarse maize meal. Similar cakes constitute the 
"tortilla" of South America and Mexico. The following is the com- 
position of the "johnny" cakes, analysis by Atwater and Wood: 

Water 38.0 per cent. 

Proteid 8.5 " 

Fat 2.7 " 

Carbohydrates 47.3 " 

Mineral Matter 3.5 

Comparing this with white bread, we find the nutritive value to 
be greater in the case of the "johnny" cake. 

An analysis of wheat bread by Dr. Robert Hutchinson, of the Lon- 
don Hospital, is as follows: 

Water 40.0 per cent. 

Proteid 6.5 " 

Fat i.o " 

Starch, Sugar and Dextrine 51.2 " 

Cellulose 3 " 

Mineral Matter i.o " 



334 CORN 

Sometimes the maize meal is leavened with yeast and subsequently 
baked in iron vessels. In this form, it is known as "pone." In Ire- 
land, baking powder is used or the maize meal is mixed with flour and 
so converted into loaves. One-third of its weight of good flour is 
sufficient to enable fine maize meal to form good loaves. The color 
of the bread is always rather dark, however, even if the proportion of 
wheat flonr be increased to one-half. 

Exportation. Our export trade in corn meal amounts to a great 
deal at the present time. During the seventeen years from 1898 to and 
including 1914, the following amounts with values appended, were 
shipped to foreign markets: 

Year Barrels of Meal Value 

1900 943,782 $2,148,410 

1901 896,877 2,065,432 

1902 348,034 1,046,643 

1903 451,506 1,382,127 

1904 590,774 1,691,669 

1905 371,565 1,113,295 

1906 543,794 1,623,397 

1907 766,880 2,313,410 

1908 654,515 2,053,447 

1909 452,907 1,549,010 

1910 331,531 1,147,568 

1911 463.266 1,456,683 

1912 439,624 1,519,792 

1913 428,794 1,444,539 

1914 336,241 1,185,891 

The following countries have been the chief importers of corn meal 
manufactured in the United States according to the Government 
Statistical Report on Commerce and Navigation. 

The total number of barrels exported to all foreign countries for 
1914 was 336,241. British Africa, West Indies, Porto Rico, the United 
Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada, including Labrador and New 
Foundland have been the principal importers. 

The above figures give an idea of the countries using most of the 
export corn meal. It may seem strange that so much goes to South 
Africa. It may be interesting to know, in this connection, that plahi 
corn cake constitutes the chief food of the South African Kafirs em- 
ployed in the African mines. 

Milling By-Products. The by-products from this system of milling, 
consist of the germs and hulls. The larger manufacturers press the 
oil out of the germ and then sell the "germ-oil meal" for stock feed. 
Rut, as the majority of corn meal mills are in the smaller towns in 



HOMINY— CEREALINE— SAMP 335 

the western part of the corn belt, this process is little practiced. A 
mixture of the impressed germ meal with one-third its weight in whole 
oats, is fast becoming a popular horse feed with draymen and breed- 
ers. The combination of the corn hulls with the germs makes an 
inexpensive stock food. 

During the year 1914, 59,030,623 pounds of corn-oil cake in the 
form of large pressed slabs were exported to European markets, the 
total value of which amounted to $909,407. Of the total amount ex- 
ported, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, 
United Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada (British Columbia) 
are the chief importers. 

Hominy, Cerealine and Samp.=:= The first of these, or whole lye 
hominy, is generally put out as the whole kernels minus the hull. It 
is treated with a solution of alkali, which serves to loosen the coat of 
the kernel. When the hull or coat has been removed, the remainder 
of the kernel, including the endosperm and germ, is thoroughly 
washed to rid it of the alkali which was used to loosen the hull and 
to take out a large per cent of the oil. 

In the preparation of whole lye hominy, a choice white variety of 
corn is demanded because the white corn makes an attractive and 
more desirable dish. Hominy mills often pay from one to three cents 
per bushel more for choice white corn of a hard, flinty texture. Soft, 
immature, starchy, or discolored corn is not used by hominy mills. 

Cerealine and samp, which are preparations of corn to be classed 
as hominy, are made from the hard, horny portions of the kernel. 
For the manufacture of these products, the manufacturers demand a 
hard, flinty, long-kerneled white corn, as this gives the desired color, 
and the large kernel will usually yield a larger percentage of the horny 
portion. Starchy, immature, or soft corn is not desired at any price. 
Hominy mills are willing to pay a premium of from three to five cents 
for the most desirable corn. ^Mixed colors in corn are not wanted. 

The process ot manufacturing consists, first, in running the shelled 
corn between rollers so that it is cracked open. It is then rolled and 
rubbed by means of machinery in order to remove the germs and the 
white, starchy portions. In the whole-lye hominy, the germ is not 
removed, but the treatment with the alkali and the heating to a high 
temperature prevents the oil which remains in the kernel from becom- 
ing rancid. Since the cerealine and samp receive no alkaline treat 
ment, the germ must be removed mechanically. 

*Van Camp Packing Co., Indianapolis. 



386 CORN 

The chemical composition of hominy and cerealine as given by Dr. 
Robert Hutchinson, is as follows : 





Hominy 


Cerealine 


Water 


11. 'J Per cent 

8.2 

0.6 
78.9 

0.4 


10 6 Per cent 


Proteid 


9.4 " 


Fat 


10 " 


Carbohydrates 


78.6 


Mineral Matter 


0.4 







Both of the preparations above discussed are of a high nutritive 
value and admirably adapted for making puddings, etc. In this capac- 
ity, it is used considerably in the Orient. In our own country, it is 
usually served by cooking in milk, much the same as sweet corn. 

Corn Flour, Maizena, Oswego. Corn flour, maizena and oswego 
are prepared from maize by washing away the proteid and fat by 
means of dilute alkaline solutions, so that little but starch is left. 
Church states that corn flour contains only i8 grains of proteid in 
every pound, and a sample of "Brown and Ralston's" corn flour, ac- 
cording to Dr. Robert Hutchinson, contained but a mere trace of 
nitrogen in the form of proteid. 

The following is an analysis of maizena, as given by Klemperer in 
Leyden's "Handbuch der Ernahrung Sterapie," page 298: 

Water 14.3 per cent. 

Proteid 5 " 

Carbohydrates 84.9 " 

Mineral Matter 3 

These preparations must therefore be regarded simply as agree- 
able forms of starch, well adapted for food, provided they are taken 
along with some proteid and fat carrier, such as eggs or fatty meats. 
Such starchy preparations, however, cannot be considered as econom- 
ical, no matter what the source, because they are a very unbalanced 
ration. 

Maize, as we have considered it in any of the forms discussed, is a 
highly nutritive cereal. It also has the added advantage of being very 
well digested in the human body. Experiments show that 90 per cent 
of its dry matter is absorbed, as compared with 82 per cent in the case 
of wheat. Of the protein of maize, but 19.2 per cent escapes absorp- 
tion ; in wheat, about 20 per cent is lost. 

Maize is an economical food. It has been calculated that when 
maize and wheat are both selling at the same price per bushel, the 
same amount of digestible matter in each is purchased for the same 
expenditure of monev. In wheat, however, there woul-d be 2^ pounds 



CORN CRISP 337 

more protein, and in maize 2>< pounds more carbohydrates.. The fuel 
value in each case is almost precisely the same.* 

In view of the above facts and the grow^int^ scarcity of wheat, il 
behooves the poorer classes of our country and the hordes of Europe 
to adapt themselves to the use of this cheaper and simpler form of 
food stuff. 

Corn Crisp, Corn Flakes. Another corn product, commonly called 
"Corn Crisp" or "Corn Flakes" is made from white corn grits, which 
are first seasoned with sugar and salt. They are then steam-cooked, 
dried, and passed through powerful rollers which flake each grit. 
These flaked grits are placed in an oven where they are toasted. The 
method of serving is common to all. 

Corn which is used for this purpose is usually not of a high grade. 
It is more generally of a No. 3, or even No. 4 grade. Corn Flakes are 
very bulky as put up for commercial consumption, and represent 
rather an expensive article of diet. They do, however, contain con- 
siderable nutriment in the form of carbohydrates, although very low 
percentage of ash and protein. 

One of the most extensive manufacturing plants in the country, 
engaged in the manufacture of this product, is operated at Quincy, 
Illinois, by the Postum Cereal Company, Limited, of Battle Creek 
Michigan. This plant annually utilizes 42,000,000 pounds of corn. 
The type of corn desired is a white, flinty variety. No by-products 
are put out for stock feeders, as in the case of the starch factories. The 
outlet for this corn product is found chiefly in the central and western 
states. The export trade which has been lately established is princi- 
pally with Great Britain. The amount exported at the present time 
is inconside» >ib!e. 




COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN. 
*U. 8. Depftrtment of Agriculture, Division of Ohsmistry, Bulletin No. 50. 



338 CORN 

CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSES. Taking up 
the separation of the grain into its different by-products, we find tliat 
the first step in this process is the separation of the kernel into three 
parts ; the outer covering or bran, the germ, and the solid portion, 
made up of the starch and gluten. 

The corn, which is purchased in the shelled form, is first cleaned 
and fanned to remove refuse matter and then steeped in a warm solu- 
tion of sulphurous acid which dissolves the soluble, glutenous matter, 
thereby, to a certain extent, freeing the germ and making the starch 
and insoluble gluten mass chalky and easy to grind. From this steep- 
ing process, the corn is run through the mills which simply tear it 
apart, thus liberating the germ from the rest of the mass. This mass 
is then run into a separator in which the mixture is kept at a certain 
density, due to the free starch held in suspension. Owing to the 
density of this mixture, the germs float to the top and are skimmed 
ofif. The remainder of the mass, being heavy, sinks to the bottom 
and is drawn off from that point. From there, it goes to fine mills 
which complete the grinding. 

This mass, which consists of pulverized starch, gluten, and fiber, 
is then sieved over silk, and the fiber thus separated is kept at hand, 
awaiting the addition of pure gluten. The mixture which goes through 
the silk is sent to long runways, and on these the starch settles; 
whereas, the gluten, due to its lighter specific gravity, floats off. This 
gluten, plus the fiber, plus what is called "steepwater," which is the 
dry material dissolved from the corn in the original steeping process, 
constitutes our commercial gluten feed. 

The gluten which is first separated contains some starch and is 
again passed over the starch tables and a second grade of starch ob 
tained. The gluten, after passing through powerful presses, which 
remove most of the water, is then dried and put on the market as 
"gluten meal," which sells for about $38 per ton. 

Most of the gluten meal and the corn bran, as indicated in a pre- 
ceding paragraph, are mixed and ground together in about the pro- 
portion in which they occur in the grain, being marketed in this form 
as gluten feed at from $19 to $25.50 per ton.* 

The germs being dried out and finely ground, are steamed and the 
oil extracted by pressure, about 90 per cent being removed. By treat- 
ing the germs with naptha, a larger per cent of oil is drawn out, but 
the germ meal remaining, is less palatable for stock. After being 
allowed to settle, the oil is drawn off into barrels. Sometimes it is 

*Corn Products Mfg. Co. 



CORN STARCH 389 

filtered. This oil sells for from 4 to 5 cents per pound. It is used for 
manufacturing paint, for lubricating oil, and for making rubber. This 
rubber, produced by vulcanizing the oil, is of a coarse texture and 
mixes readily with India rubber, being useful where wearing qualities 
rather than elasticity are required. Sole rubber, buffers, and solid 
rubber buggy tires, are made chiefly of the rubber from corn. Light- 
houses have been successfully lighted with corn oil, A refined qual- 
ity of corn oil is used in place of olive oil for salad dressing and pre- 
serving. Much corn oil is exported annually to those countries w li'ch 
manufacture olive oil. In 1914, 18,281, .^76 pounds oi corn oil. valued at 
$1,307,204, was exported from the United States. 

The extracted germs are marketed in the form of thin slabs, known 
to the trade as "corn oil cake," or are ground and sold as "germ oil 
meal." Exportation of this jjroduct in 1914 amounted to 59,030,623 
pounds, valued at $909,407. Great Britain and Germany are the 
exclusive purchasers of corn oil cake, the breeders of the Islands 
relying upon it almost entirely as a concentrate. In the American 
market, germ oil meal sells for from $18.50 to $25 per ton, its value as a 
feed being less than that of linseed oil meal. Corn bran, after being 
subjected to a thorough washing to remove the starch, is dried, and if 
not mixed with gluten meal, sold as a separate product at from $15 
to $22 per ton. It is bought by feeders and mixed with other heavy 
concentrates to lighten the rations. 

The amount of the above products which a bushel of shelled corn 
will produce is about as follows : 

Starch 36 pounds. 

Gluten meal 7 

Corn bran 5 

Germ oil meal 2.7 " 

Corn oil 1.8 " 

From the "green starch," as it first comes from the settling troughs 
is made a number of other products. Dextrin, which is f(^rmed by 
heating starch to 280 degrees Fahrenheit in the presence of dilute 
nitric acid, is used extensively in the manufacture of paste and muci- 
lage. Fine fabric, paper box, and glue manufacturers make large use 
of different kinds of dextrin. The postage and revenue stami:)s of the 
United States government derive their adhesive power from this corn 
product. A granulated gum which competes strongly on the market 
with gum arabic, is manufactured from dextrin. 

For converting starch into glucose, dilute hydro-chloric acid is 



340 CORN 

now very generally used, although for certain products, sulphuric 
acid in mixture with a limited amount of nitric acid is used. The 
operation is conducted in a steam heated, closed copper converter, 
under a pressure of 30 to 40 pounds per square inch. High pressure 
reduces the amount of acid and length of time required. Syrupy 
glucose can be produced in from ten to thirty minutes by such a 
process, but solid starch sugar requires a longer time. As the syrupy 
liquid comes from the converter, the sulphuric acid is neutralized with 
chalk or marble dust and the hydrochloric acid with soda. 

"Mixing Glucose" or grape sugar is the largest single product de- 
rived from starch conversion. Pure glucose syrup has little flavor 
and is but one-half as sweet to the taste as beet or cane syrup. Hence, 
10 per cent or more of the latter is blended with the former, the 
result being what is known as "Korn King Syrup" or "Karo," or 
products of a similar nature known by different names. Corn syrup 
and "70" and "80" sugars sell for 2^4 cents per pound. Jelly glucose is 
the basis for manufactured jellies, the flavoring being the evaporated 
juices of dififerent fruits. Fancy fruit preserves are put up in glucose. 
Apothecaries and soft drink dispensers use glucose very extensively 
in compounding. Four kinds of crystallized glucose are made into cake 
frostings and other delicacies by bakers and confectioners. Candy 
factories annually utilize carloads of the crude glucose. Grape sugar 
is only two-thirds as sweet as cane sugar, but because it costs less 
an anhydrous kind is used by brewers to increase the alcohol content 
of beer. Cheaper grape sugar plays a part in the tanning of leather. 
36,850,496 pounds of grape sugar and 162,680,378 pounds of glucose, 
valued at $4,565,919, were exported from the United States in 1914. 
This product even enters Europe and the territory where the sugar 
beet is extensively grown. 

Corn starch has long been a well known product in the American 
home. In one form or another 76,713,779 pounds of starch valued at 
$1,825,230 were exported from the United States in 1914. Laundry 
starch is now made largely from corn, potato starch being seldom 
used for such purposes. 

Pearl starch is used by cotton and paper manufacturers in stiffen- 
ing. A refined product is bought by the baking powder companies. 
The commercial grades of pearl and powdered starch sell for about 
2 1-4 cents per pound. 

Flourine, a corn flour, consisting principally of starch, is used to 
a limited degree as an admixture to bolted wheat flour, with no detri- 
mental effect. Textile mills run colors in some fabrics with starch 



FERMENTATION PRODUCTS 341 

after it has been freed of all trace of acid. A limited amount of 
dried starch and sugar feed, together with starch feed (wet), are 
the principal by-products in the immediate conversion and refining 
of starch. 

For the manufacture of the products discussed, with the exception 
of hominy, th,; companies generally buy No. 3 and No. 4 corn — more 
often the latter. We may safely say that these companies furnish 
a means of handling millions of dollars worth of corn that would have 
been almost valueless upon the market for any other purpose. The 
Com Products Manufacturing Company of Chicago, alone, handle 
from thirty-five to fifty millions of bushels of No. 3 and No. 4 corn 
annually. 

FERMENTATION PRODUCTS. The corn is first cleaned by 
screening and fanning and then run between rollers and crushed. The 
hulls and germs having been removed, the remaining portion of the 
corn, which consists largely of starch and gluten, is ground and cooked 
in large tanks to dissolve the starch. 

It is then taken to the fermenting tanks where about 10 per cent 
of barley malt and yeast are added, with 40 gallons of water per bush- 
el of grain. The mass is allowed to ferment. The starch is first con- 
verted to sugar by the action of the enzymes in the malt, and then 
the sugar is converted to alcohol. 

The liquid portion, consisting of water and alcohol, is drawn off 
and heated in large evaporating tanks. The alcohol, having a lower 
boiling point than water, is driven ofif first. It is then condensed by 
directing it over coils filled with cold water. 

The residue left in the fermenting tanks, after being washed to re- 
move all the alcohol, is taken to powerful presses and as much as pos- 
sible of the liquid matter is removed. This liquid portion is used by 
cattle feeders, who frequently have large feeding establishments lo- 
cated near the distillery. The cattle do best when stanchioned all the 
time. In front of each row of cattle runs a long trough in which the 
distillery slop is placed. The cattle drink large quantities of the slop, 
which, with the exception of a very few pounds of hay to lessen the 
scouring efifect of the slop, constitutes their only feed. "Inasmuch as 
a bushel of Indian corn weighs 56 pounds, the total weight of ferment- 
able matter therein, in round numbers, is 39 pounds. The weight of 
the alcohol which is produced under the best conditions is little less 
than one-half of the fermentable matter. Therefore the total weight 
of alcohol which would be yielded by a bushel of average Indian corn 
would be, in round numbers, about 19 pounds. The weight of a gal- 

(12) 



342 CORN 

Ion of 95 per cent alcohol is nearly 7 pounds. Hence, i bushel of corn 
would produce 2.7 gallons. 

"If the average price of Indian corn is placed, in round numbers, 
at 40 cents a bushel, the cost of the raw material — that is, of the Indian 
corn — for manufacturing 95 per cent industrial alcohol is about 15 
cents a gallon. To this must be added the cost of manufacture, stor- 
age, etc., which is perhaps as much more, making the estimated actual 
cost of industrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength made from Indian 
corn about 30 cents per gallon. If to this be added the profits of the 
manufacturer and dealer, it appears that under the conditions cited, 
industrial alcohol, untaxed, should be sold for about 40 cents per 
gallon."* 

Distilled spirits from corn enters into the manufacture of smoke- 
less powder. Fusel-oil (amyl alcohol) forms a part of Bourbon whis- 
ky. American perfumes and Cologne are based on corn alcohol as a 
solvent for the aromatic compounds introduced. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE COB** 

About the most valueless thing on the farm, so far as manurial 
value is concerned, is the corn cob in its cob state. In parts of Iowa, 
where the corn is shelled on a commercial scale, the cobs are hauled 
to the fields to be used as a fertilizer and for the addition of humus. 
Furthermore, it Is claimed that they are valuable as a soil holder and 
conserver of moisture. The most value may be obtained by burning 
them as a summer fuel. One ton of corn cobs is worth about one- 
third as much as a ton of dry, hard, wood. Their cost, of course, 
depends upon the scarcity of wood and coal and the amount of corn 
grown. As a manurial product, they are valuable chiefly for the 
potash and phosphorous they contain. Chemical analyses show corn- 
cob ash to consist of about 50 per cent of potash (K2O). 

In parts of Missouri, chiefly in the vicinity of St. Louis, there is 
a great demand for corn cobs to be manufactured into the famous 
"Missouri Meerschaum" pipes. Near Washington, Missouri a very 
large type of corn is grown, which has cobs that may be easily utilized 
by the manufacturing plants. The firm of Hirschel and Bendheim, lo- 
cated at St. Louis, is probably the largest concern doing that kind ol 
business in the United States. They pay about $25 per thousand 
pounds for selected cobs. According to the above firm, the output of 
cob pipes for one year in the United States amounts to about half a 
million dollars. The export trade of this product, which is chiefly 
with England and her possessions, amounts to very little. 

*Farmers' Bulletin 268. 

**Hirschel and Bendheim of St. Louis. 



PRODUCTS FROM STALK AND LEAVES 343 

"Corn Down," which is secured by chaffing the cob in the manu- 
facture of cob pipes, and in cleaning out the shelled corn used in the 
various mills, is used in upholstering and in padding mattresses. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF 

FROM THE STALK. A good quality of paper is produced from 
corn stalks at a cost of $25 to $26 a ton. Paper from wood pulp or rags 
costs from $66 to $75 a ton. Over $100,000 has been spent in the per- 
fection of machinery for the handling of this material. A recently pat- 
ented threshing machine separates the stalks from the leaves, delivers 
the stalks bound in bundles, ready for shipment, and the remainder 
of the plant into the barn ready for stock. The stalks are sent to a 
depithing plant, where the casing of the stalk is removed, leaving the 
soft pith ready to be rolled into ordinary paper. The coarser pith is 
manufactured into stiff box-board. 

The New Corn Product. The Naval Department of the United 
States Government has conducted extensive experiments with corn 
pith for use in vessels, and the results have been so satisfactory that 
it has been adopted and specified for use in the construction of all new 
vessels. A number of European nations, also, have adopted it, and 
others have commissions for the investigation of the material, looking 
to its adoption. 

This extensive use of corn pith means a market for a product 
which has been almost entirely wasted heretofore. After the pith has 
been removed, the shell or the balance of the stalk is ground up into 
a sort of meal known as the "New Corn Product." While this is per- 
haps of little value to the average corn grower, yet it is of value to the 
manufacturers engaged in the extraction of the pith used in the man- 
ufacturing of ships. Immense quantities of corn stalks are used to 
secure the pith for one battleship. 

By digesting cellulose in nitric acid, or a mixture of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids, a nitrate is formed commonly known as guncotton. Ni- 
tro-glycerin and this guncotton form smokeless gun powder. Corn 
stalks are rapidly becoming an important source of the cellulose used 
in these operations. Pyroxylin varnish, a liquid by-product in the 
manufacture of cellulose, has many practical uses. 

FROM THE LEAVES. The leaves, outer shell of the stalk, and 
other refuse remaining fr<»ni the manufacture of cellulose, are ground 



344 CORN 

finely and sold as stock feed. Tests at the Maryland Experiment Sta- 
tion proved it to be higher in digestible nutrients than corn fodder. A 
like product, except that it is the by-product of the paper factory, is 
also put upon the market, the coarser parts being baled. 

Stock foods of different nutritive values result from the use of the 
by-products of the stalk and leaves. After grinding this refuse mat- 
ter very finely, it is mixed with dried blood, molasses, distillery and 
glucose by-products, sugar beet pulp, and apple pomace. 

FROM THE HUSKS. Corn husks furnish- packing for horse col- 
lars and are used in the manufacture of cheap hats in the South. Coarse 
door mats of lasting quality are made in the North. Husk ticks for 
beds are used in bunk houses by construction companies, when con 
tracts happen to be in the corn growing districts. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Studies of Corn and its Uses. 

Illinois Bulletin No. 9. 
Indian Corn as a Food for Man 

Maine Bulletin No. 131. 
Report on the Value of a New Corn Product. 

Maryland Bulletin No. ^3. 



CHAPTER XV 



COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF 

CORN 



THE GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS 



PHYSICAL STRUCTURE* Dr. C. G. Hopkins, of the Illinois 
Experiment Station, has made a very satisfactory mechanical analysis 
of the corn kernel. He divides it into six different parts, as follows: 

1. Tip Cap. This is a small cap covering the tip end of the 
kernel and servmg as a protection to the end of the germ. It consists 
of material somewhat resembling the cob. Occasionally in shelling 
corn the tip cap remains attached to the cob, leaving the tip end of 
the germ uncovered, but nearly always sticks to the kernel. 

2. Hull. This is a very thin outer covering of the kernel. It 
consists largely of carbohydrates, especially fiber or cellulose, although 
it also contains a small percentage of other constituents. 

3. Horny Glutenous Part. This part lies immediately underneath 
the hull. It constitutes a second covering of the kernel. For short 
it is called "horny gluten," although it is, of course, not pure gluten. 
However, it is the richest in protein of any part of the corn kernel. 

4. Horny Starchy Part. This part lies next to the horny gluten, 
on the back and sides of the kernel. For short it is called "horny 
starch," although it is not pure starch, as it contains considerable 
amounts of other constituents, especially protein. In an examination 
of the kernel with the unaided eye, the horny glutenous and the horny 
Atarchy parts are not readily distinguished from each other, the line 
between them being somewhat indefinite and indistinct. Considered 
both together, these two parts constitute the horny part of the kernel. 

5. White Starchy Part. This part occupies the crown end of 
ihe kernel above the germ, and it also nearly surrounds the germ to 
ward the tip end of the kernel. For convenience, this material is 
called "white starch," although it is not pure starch. In some kernels 
the horny starch extends nearly or quite to the germ, near the middle 

"Bulletin No. 87, Illiuois Experiment Station. 




THE PHYSICAL PARTS OF THE CORN KERNEL 



PHYSICAL PARTS OF KERNFX 347 

of the kernel, and thus separates more or less completely the white 
starch. 

6. Germ. The germ occupies the center of the front of the ker- 
nel toward the tip and usually extends about one-half or two-thirds of 
the length of the kernel. 

MECHANICAL SEPARATION OF THE DIFFERENT 
PARTS. It is not a very difficult matter to obtain very pure samples 
of each of the above named parts of the corn kernel, although in mak- 
ing the separations there is of necessity some waste material consist- 
ing of a mixture of the different parts. 

By use of a small, sharp knife anyone can make the following 
separations : 

1. Tip Cap. 

2. Hull. 

3. Horny Gluten. 

4. Germ. 

5. White Starch. 

a. Crown starch. 

b. Tip starch. 

6. Horny Starch. 

7. Waste (Mixed Materials). 

In making these separations, the kernels are first soaked in hot 
water for 15 or 20 minutes. 

Removal of Parts. — i. Tip Cap. With a knife cut one side, 
preferably that on which the germ is located, then cut the back side. 
Bend the whole tip toward the side of the first cut and the cap will 
come ofif with trim edges. If only one side is first cut, there is lia- 
bility of removing part of the hull with the tip cap. 

2. Hull. Catching the edge of the swollen hull under the blade 
of a knife, peel it back, beginning on the back side of the kernel first. 
Be careful to dislodge all of the hull from the wrinkled crown in 
pinched dent corn. 

3. Horny Gluten. Covering the entire kernel like a coat of 
"sealing wax," will now be seen a thin layer, which in yellow corn 
is readily identified because of its yellow color, especially where con- 
trasted with the white starch of the crown. In shaving off this thin 
layer, the greatest care should be exercised not to get too deep, 
either in the white or the horny starch. The fact that the horny 
starch loses its lustre just as soon as the horny gluten is removed, is 



348 



CORN 



an indication that the scraping has continued long enough. No horny 
gluten will be found covering the surface of the germ. 

4. Germ. Next split the kernel lengthwise, through center of 
the germ. With the knife slowly "scallop" out the half of the germ 
from each section of the kernel. The depth can easily be gauged by 
the line between the germ and the starchy part beneath. 

5. White Starch. — 

(a) Crown Starch. The large cap of starch at the crown can now 
easily be cut off just above its junction with the horny starch. Some 
white starch will have to be whittled out of the small strip appearing 
between the cheeks of horny starch. 

(b) Tip Starch. Near the tip of the kernel will be seen a white 
starch which is removed with difificulty from between the cheeks of 
horny starch. 

6. Horny Starch. This usually remains intact in two large pieces. 

7. Mixed Waste. Because of the difificulty in securing pure 
samples of these parts, there will remain some particles of mixed 
material which results largely from scraping the horny starch to re- 
move the white starch and horny gluten. This should be weighed 
separately. PHYSICAL ANALYSES. 

From physical analyses at Illinois, Hopkins found the percentages 
of the respective parts to vary as follows : 

PERCENTAGES OF DIFFERENT PARTS. 



Names of Parts 


Low Protein Ear Medium Protein Ear 


High Protein 
Ear 


Tip Caps 


1.20 1.46 

5.47 5.93 

7.75 5.12 

29.58 32.80 

16.94 11.85 

10.93 5.91 

9.59 11.53 

18.53 25.40 


1.62 


Hulls 


6 09 


Horny Gluten 

Horny Starch 

Crown Starch 

Tip Starch 

Germs 

Mixed Waste 


9.86 
33.79 
10.45 

6.23 
11.93 
20.03 



A very large percent of mixed waste will be noted from these 
tables. By computations it was shown that this waste consisted al- 
most entirely of horny gluten, horny starch, crown starch, and tip 
starch. Consequently, after distributing the error secured from this 
mixed waste the percentages appear as follows : 



Names of Parts 


Low Protein Ear 


Mediimi Protein Ear 


High Protein 
Ear 


Tip Caps 


1.20 
5.47 
11.61 
37.15 
21.26 
13.71 
9.59 


1.46 1 1.62 


Hulls 


5.93 1 fi Ofl 


Horny Gluten 

Horny Starch 

Crown Starch 

Tip Starch 


8.51 
47.08 
17.01 

8.48 
11.53 


13.32 

44.89 

13.88 

6.28 


Germs 


11.93 






Total .....| 99.99 | 100.00 


100.01 



COMPOSITION OP PARTS 



349 



Taking an ear of medium protein the following table shows the 
percentage composition of the different parts of the kernels. 



COMPOSITION OF PARTS. 



Names of Parts 



Whole Kernel 
Tip Caps . . . . 

Hulls 

Horny Gluten . 
Horny Starch 
Crown Starch 
Tip Starch . . . 

Germs 

Mixed Waste 



Protein 
Per cent 



10.95 

8.83 

3.96 

22.50 

10.20 

7.92 

7.68 

19.80 

11.10 



Oil 
Per cent 



4.33 

2.30 
.89 

6.99 

.24 

.17 

.39 

34.84 

1.23 



Ash 
Per cent 



Carbo- 
hydrates 
Per cent 



1.55 

1.11 
.79 

1.72 
.24 
.24 
.31 

9.90 
.57 



83.17 
87.76 
94.36 
69.09 
89.32 
91.67 
91.62 
35.46 
87.10 



A close Study should be made of this table. The facts that the 
horny gluten is 22.50 per cent protein and that the germ is 34.84 
per cent oil, are very striking. 

The most significant table is here presented, which shows the 
percentage distribution of the chemical constituents among the physi- 
cal parts for an ear of medium protein content. 



Names of Parts 



In Tip Caps 

In Hull 

In Horny Gluten 
In Horny Starch 
In Corn Starch . , 

In Tip Starch 

In Germs 



Total 



Per cent of 
Total Protein 



1.14 
2.07 
16.67 
42.36 
11.88 
5.75 
20.14 



Per cent of 
Total Oil 



.69 

1.08 

12.21 

2.32 

.59 

.68 

82.43 



100.01 



100.00 



Per cent of 
Total Ash 



1.06 
3.06 
9.56 
7.38 
2.67 
1.72 
74.55 



100.00 



Per cent of 
lotal Car- 
bohydrates 



1.56 
6.80 
7.15 
51.12 
18.96 
9.45 
4.97 



100.01 




CROSS SECTION OF CORN KERNEL 
g. Germ. f. p. Floury part or white 

starch. h. p. Horny part, or horny 

starch. 



82.43 per cent of all the oil 
in a kernel of corn in the above 
case is in the germ. The fact 
that corn has a large or small 
germ is therefore indicative of 
its oil content. The large per 
cent (42.63) of protein in the 
horny starch accounts for the 
higher feeding value of well ma- 
tured corn, which always shows 
a greater development of horny 
starch. 



350 



CORN 



r 




^ " 


\ 




j 


\ 




/ ^ 


\ 


'-^ 


I 



Dividing the kernel into three 
parts, the crown, middle, and 
tip, the following percentages 
of the valuable food constituents 
are shown :* 

A full, plump tip, as shown by 
this table, indicates that the 
corn is of high feeding value. 



1. — Corn kernel divided into (c) Crown, 
which is mostly white starch: (m) 
middle, which takes in some of the 
germ and the greater part of the hnrny 
starch and is therefore richest in pro- 
tein: (t) tip, which is richest in oil. 



Parts 


Per cent Protein 


Per cent Oil 


Total 


Crown 

Middle 

Tip 


13.51 

9.98 
12.26 


1.00 

3.33 

12.02 


14.51 
13.31 

24.28 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CORN 

The animal body is made up of bones, flesh, tendons, skin, hair, 
horny substances, and a large, though varying amount of water. Just 
as the animal body is made up of varying proportions of flesh, fats, 
water and bone, so a plant is made up of various similar substances 
from which this flesh, fat and bone are made. These component parts 
of the plant represent a large number of chemical compounds. For 
our discussion, however, they are grouped together under a few gen- 
eral heads and in two great classes. 

I. Organic compounds. 

A. Nitrogenous. 

I. Protein. 

B. Non-nitrogenous. 

1. Fat. 

2. Carbohydrates. 

(a) Soluble carbohydrates or nitrogen free extract. 

(b) Insoluble carbohydrates or crude fiber. 

II. Inorganic compounds. 

A. Ash. 

B. Water. 

As each of these groups has its specific part to play in the build- 
ing up of the animal body, they will here be discussed separately. 

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— Protein. The beneficial results 
followang the use of oil meal, bran, clover and alfalfa hay, we know, 



CARBOHYDRATES AND FAT 351 

come largely from the protein which these feeds contain in greater 
abundance than most of the feeds grown on the farm. 

The word "protein"* is used to designate a large number of sub- 
stances that differ from each other more or less in chemical composi- 
tion. These substances are alike in one particular — they all contain 
nitrogen. So the term protein has come to be applied to any nitrog- 
enous bubstance, whether animal or vegetable.** 

As far as we are at present able to determine, the proteids of the 
body are built up only by the animal assimilating the nitrogenous pro- 
teids already existing in the plant tissues which are consumed in its 
daily ration. Unlike plants, the animal cannot manufacture its own 
protein for flesh or milk forming. All it can do is to modify the plant 
protein and utilize it to form its body tissues, milk solids, and egg 
albumen. This is why, from the view point of the feeder, protein is 
such an essential part of corn or any other plant. Besides the part 
it plays in building up the tissues, protein has a stimulative effect 
upon the animal functions. It has been found by the Geneva, New 
York, Experiment Station that protein may be manufactured by the 
animal into body fat. It may also be used to supply heat and energy 
to the animal. 

Carbohydrates and Fat.*** All plants contain fat chiefly in the 
form of vegetable oils. The oils of the corn germ, of linseed, 
of cotton seed, and the olive, occur in such quantities that they are 
pressed out or extracted and have a chemical value greater than they 
would have as feeds for our domestic animals. Ail plants contain 
starch (the corn kernel may sometimes contain as high as 70 per 
cent) ****sugars and vegetable gums. The starches, sugars, and gums 
are called carbohydrates. The carbohydrates, through a process of 
oxidation very similar to burning of wood in an engine or stove, sup- 
ply the energy that the animal requires to masticate, digest, and as- 

*About 16 per ceut of most protein substances has been found to consist of nitrogen. In 
determining the amount of protein present in corn or other grain the amount of nitrogen 
it contains is first obtained, then by multiplying the amount of nitrogen present in the 
feed by 100-16, or 6 1-4, we obtain an estimate of the protein present. 

**Thu8 lean meat freed of fat and connective tissue is protein. The white albumen of egg 
is prottin ; so is the gluten of wlieat flour. The protein of corn is found principally in the 
gei-m and horny gluieu, as well as in smaller amounts in the stalk and other puriious of 
the plant. It supplies the flesh forming materials and repairs the wastes of the animal 
body. It is also one of the indispensable factors in milk production. It is from this 
substance that the cow makes the casein and albumens for her milk and that the heu 
mauutaciures the while albumen fur her eggs. 

***In determining the percentage of fat, anhydious ether is used to extract this substance 
from tile waier-iree plant tissues. Kther dissolves small amounts of vegetable gums 
and similar substances other than fats; so in the tables of analyses, fats, gums, etc. 
are classed as "ether extract.'' In calculations, however, the figures in the columns 
under "ether extract" may be used as indicating the percentages of fat. In the tables 
that follow the soluble carbohydrates are found under the heading of "nitrogen free 
extract." In the analysis of a grain or fodder the nitrogen free extract is determined 
by difference. That is, in a weighed sample of a grain or fodder the percentage of all 
of the other constituents, water, ash, protein, fat, and crude fib-r, are first determined 
and the sum of these subtracted Irom 100. The difference is called nitrogen free ex- 
tract or in some tables, carbohydrates. 

****Thi8 starch which is also found iRrgely in the fodder is not affected greatly by cold 
water, therefore 'ittle of it is carried off by leaching. 



352 



CORN 



similate its food ; to transform the crude food products into milk prod- 
ucts or eggs ; or, as in the horse to do its daily work. They also furnish 
heat to the body. After these maintenance requirements are fulfilled 
whatever food elements are left are stored away in various parts of 
the body in the form of animal fat for further use. 

Then when food supplies are insufficient, the animal draws upon 
its body fat for material out of which to manufacture milk, 
or for fuel to keep its body warm. The fats or oils of grains and fod- 
ders act in the body in very much the same way as do the carbohy- 
drates, but they produce a greater amount of heat and energy. Fat 
has about 2.4 times as much heat and energy producing power as 
have the carbohydrates. For this reason, fats rank next in impor- 
tance after protein as an essential part of an animal's ration. Protein, 
the fats, and the carbohydrates, are the three important food materials, 
but since the fats meet the same fate in the body as do the carbo- 
hyarates, there are really only two chief substances, (i) the flesh form- 
ers (protein) ; and (2) the heat and energy formers (carbohydrates and 
fats). The part that each of these three constituents plays in the ani- 
mal economy, is indicated in the following diagram : 



retp sTuTf 




Fie ih wool e;c 

M'lk joiids. ogg olbomms. 

Meot ond efiergy 

Heot ond energy. 

Body fot. 
Butter -foT etc 
Meat onci enerqy 



Crude Fiber. The cells and frame work of growing plants as well 
as the covering of seeds and grains are made up of more or less woody 
fiber called "cellulose." Cellulose is chemically similar to the starches 
and therefore might properly be termed a carbohydrate, but as the 
greater portion of it is practically indigestible, this indigestible or 
insoluble portion is classed by itself as "crude fiber." While yielding 
very little matter nutritious to the feeding animal, crude fiber has 
an important mechanical eflfect on the digestion of food. 



It is the crude fiber in the feed that gives bulk to the contents of 
the paunch, and unless a cow or steer receives sufficient "roughage" 
with its ration it cannot ruminate. There is no foundation for the 



*An original diagram, designed by Prof. Ij. G. Michael of the Iowa Experiment Station. 



INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 353 

cud, and the food escapes that thorough chewing that is so essential 
to the complete digestion of the carbohydrates. This is the reason 
why it is advisable to feed chaffed hay or shredded corn stalks with 
grain to ruminants. 

After mastication the crude fiber gives mass to the digesting sub- 
stances in the stomach and bowels, rendering them porous and mak- 
ing it easy for thfe digestive fluids to find their way to the valuable 
food ingredients. After the digestive fluids have extracted all or 
most of the nutritious portions of the feed the crude fiber contmues 
to keep the waste material in the lower bowels loose and bulky. The 
bowels are thus better able to grip and pass on the mass to final ex- 
cretion. In this way crude fiber has a tendency to prevent impac- 
tion or constipation. 

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— Ash. All feeds when burned 
leave an ash. The ash is valuable as a food inasmuch as it furnishes 
the materials that form the bones of the animal, especially a young 
growing animal, and that form the minerals for the blood, tissues and 
milk solids. Corn meal may contain as low as i per cent of ash while 
corn fodder may run as high as 3 or 4 per cent in these materials. 
These ash compounds have never been given sufficient consideration 
from the standpoint of their value in animal growth. As we have 
seen, the corn grain is noticeably lacking in mineral matter which 
makes up almost three-fourths of the bones of animals. In practice 
the hogs of Iowa and Illinois which have been fed an excess of corn 
through their growing period show a small frame and under size, al- 
though showing evidence of refinement and quality. The shoats of 
western Nebraska are rugged and growthy, showing when young, scaic 
and roughness of frame due to running on alfalfa pasture which lui- 
nishes a large amount of mineral matter. 

As students of corn it should be observed that the ash is chiefly 
found in the part of the plant which is usually lost on the farms in 
the corn belt. In other words, the corn fodder, which is quite rich in 
mineral matter, remains in the field and the grain whicn is so deficient 
in inorganic elements is fed heavily. Corn is the one food which, while 
so heavily grown and fed in the greatest live stock area of the United 
States, is lacking in ash. 

Water. The corn stalk may be apparently very dry, but if some 
loosely broken leaves are placed in a tumbler or drinking glass and 
the glass inverted on a dinner plate and set in the sunlight, drops of 
water will soon be seen to collect on the inner surface of the glass. 
All grains and feeds contain water no matter how dry they may seem. 



354 



CORN 



The amount of water present depends upon the kind of feed and the 
conditions to which it has been exposed; for hay, foddeis and grains 
are constantly taking up and giving off water according to atmospheric 
changes."* 

Pasture grasses contain from 62 to 80 per cent of water; while 
roots, like mangels, beets, and carrots may contain 87 to 90 per cent; 
and hay and grains from S to 15 per cent. As the percentages of all the 
other ingredients decrease proportionately as the water content in- 
creases, this is an important factor to consider in the tabulated analy- 
ses of feeds. 

Water, when organic, that is, a normal constituent of the feed it- 
self, as in beets or silage, has a direct effect on the animal functions; 
especially is this true of the dairy cow. Within certain limits the more 
water a cow can be induced to take into her body, the more milk she 
will produce without affecting the quality. In this respect organic wa- 
ter, as m silage or roots, is most efficacious. 

Water has several uses in the animal economy. It aids the digest- 
ive organs in dissolving the more concentrated portions of the feed and 
has the beneficial physiological effect of keeping the bowel contents 
free and loose. This is the reason why green fodder, used as a soil- 
ing crop, in fall after the pastures are dry, and ensilage, fed during 
the winter, are such valuable adjuncts to a corn and hay ration. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN 

The value of any feed depends upon, first, its percentage composi- 
tion of digestible and desirable nutrit nts, together with the propor- 
tions of these components ; second, its palatability and ease of masti- 
cation, and third, its cost of production and preparation for feeding. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION. 

TABLE SHOWING IN PER CENT THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
OF CORN IN DIFFERENT FORMS 





Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fibre 


Nitrogen 
free extract 


Fat 


Dent Varieties 


10.56 
14.98 
10.70 
15.08 
42.20 


1.53 
1.42 
1.40 
1.46 
2.70 


10.25 
9.17 
2.40 
8.45 
4.50 


2.24 
1.90 

30.10 
6.62 

14.30 


70.40 
68.76 
5490 
64.86 
34.70 


5 02 


Corn Meal 


3.77 


Corn Cob 


50 


Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Fodder 


3.53 
1.60 







A study of this table shows corn to be very high m percentage oi 
nitrogen-free extract. When it is considered that 70 per cent of the 
corn kernjel is starch, the fact that corn is so heat-forming in work- 
ing animals is not strange. The 5.02 per cent of oil is very 

*For example, grains raised in California are sold by weight, and when loaded on ships are 
in a very dry condition. In their voyage across the Pacific they absorb water from the 
atmosphere and in this way often increase sufficiently in weight to pay the freight. 



PALATABILITY 



3Sb 



high, compared with other grains. This, together with the starch, is a 
rich source of fat in the animal body. The 10.25 per cent of protein is 
not so low in comparison with the other cereals, if it were not for the 
fact that the percentage of starch and fat is so high. The corn kernel 
is not coarse in cellular structure, as shown by the small amount of 
crude fiber. Corn is comparatively dry, considering the openness of 
its starchy cells, which tend to hold hygrosco})ic moisture. 

Percentage. C OmPO&i tioN oj QorH 



NltrOq<"t - >r 



Prot^.n. 



Crude fibc, 



nsh 



^^■^■■■■■> 

10.30 
S.oo 

220 

1.50 

The mineral matter in corn is seriously lacking, due largely, no 
doubt, to its quick growth and starchy structure. The plant draws 
chiefly from the organic rather than the inorganic material in the soil. 

DIGESTIBILITY. 

The student who is just beginning to find out the chemical compo- 
sition of corn is liable to overlook a second step in the study of the 
percentages. From experiments, the amounts of digestible nutrients 
have been found to be present in corn in its dififerent forms. 





Dry Matter in 
100 Lbs. 


Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds 


Form of Corn 


Protein Carbohydrates 


Extract 
Ether 


Corn Dent 


89.40 
85.00 
89.30 
84.90 
57.80 


7.80 66.70 
6.26 65.26 
.40 52.50 
4.40 60.00 
2.50 34.60 


4.30 


Corn Meal 


3.50 


Corn Cob 


.30 


Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Fodder 


2.90 
1.20 







Comparing this table with the figures giving the total percentage 
composition, it will be seen that the protein is 76 per cent digestible, 
the carbohydrates (headed "nitrogen-free extract" in previous table) 
94.7 and the ether extract 84.8. These percentages are significant. The 
fact that corn is so largely utilized by the animal makes it an econom- 
ical food. Its constituents are in such physical and chemical com- 
bination as to be easily disintegrated, dissolved, acted upon by the 
digestive juices, and assimilated. 

PALATABILITY AND MASTICATION. Except when dry and 
flinty from long storage, shelled corn is easily masticated. The starchy 
cellular structure breaks up irregularl}^ and abruptly., there being no 



356 



CORN 



formation of a glutenous and pasty mass. The starch ot corn readily 
changes to sugar in the process of mastication, which renders it very 
palatable. Western stock which has never been fed corn, in a short 
time acquires a taste for it when put on feed in the corn belt. 

COST OF PRODUCTION AND PREPARATION FOR FEED- 
ING. As will be shown later, the number of pounds of corn required 
to produce loo pounds of pork or beef is not much lower than in the 
case of other cereals, iioo pounds of corn, the amount required to pro- 
duce 100 pounds of beef, at 45 cents per bushel of 56 pounds, would be 
worth $8.03. The same amount of wheat meal would also be required 
to produce 100 pounds of beef, and would be worth $11 if figured on the 
basis of 60 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. This is not considering the 
cost of grinding the wheat. 

CORN VS. OTHER CEREALS. The following table shows the 
number of pounds of corn in different forms required to produce 100 
pounds gain in farm animals. The averages were made from reports 
of the stations of several states. 

AMOUNT OF CORN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN. 



FEED 


Pork 


Beef 


Mutton 


Ear Corn 

Shelled Corn 

Corn Meal 

Corn and Cob Meal 


••1 

..| 534.4 
469.0 
581.3 


1,410** 
1,100** 
1,051.5** 
996** 


508* 



♦Fed with hay to lambs. 
**Roughage used also. 



AMOUNTS OF OTHER FEEDS. 



Wheat Meal 
Middlings . . 
Barley Meal 

Oats 

Oil Meal 




553=" 



J1I8** 



*Fed with hay. 

**Fed with hay and roots. 

No marked difiference is noticed between the amounts of corn and 
those of other feeds required to produce gain. The economic impor- 
tance lies in the comparative cost and palatability of the concentrates. 

CORN AS A FEED FOR HORSES. Corn is very desirable feed 
for horses because it requires little time for mxastication. A horse 
spends little time in chewing and when hard at work should not be 
required to expend a large amount of energy in preparing its food. As 
a horse chews its food but once, the starches in it must be readily 
changed into sugar. This characteristic is especially true of corn. 
There is no formation of a pasty mass so obnoxious to a horse. The 



CORN AS PEED FOR HOGS 



357 



Stomach of a horse is of Hmited capacity, hence the food should be 
quite concentrated. This requirement is fulfilled by corn. 

However, a work horse requires a narrow nutritive ration. The 
nutritive ratio of shelled corn is i iQ.j, which means that for every 
pound of digestible protein which is fed, there accompanies it 9.7 
pounds of digestible carbohydrates. This is spoken of as a medium 
raiio. Accuiilnig to the Wolff- Lehmann feeding standards, the horse 
at medium work requires a nutritive ration of 1:6.2, which is much 
narnnver than that supplied by corn. In other words, there is too 
much carbohydrates and fat for the amount of protein present. 
A larger percentage of protein is necessary to balance the heat-form- 
ing constituents. Draft horses sweat profusely and appear "logy" 
when fed corn too heavily during the working season. In winter, corn 
is Ixnind to form a large part of the farm horse ration because of its 
abundance in the corn belt. 

Next to oats, bran is the best mixture with corn. It separates the 
particles of corn so that the juices can get at them. At times in win- 
ter, the whole grain feed may be made up of corn, and it may even 
supply three-fourths of the ration in summer. 

CORN AS A FEED FOR HOGS. In arranging a ration for hogs 
it should be kept in mind that this animal has a very limited digestive 
capacity and therefore cannot consume a large quantity of bulky food. 
The purpose for which the ration is fed, whether for fattening, grow- 
ing, or to the mother when carrying her suckling young, is also an 
important consideration. 

For the Sow. Corn being so high in carbohydrates and fat, tends 
to produce an excess of internal fat in a brood sow before farrowing. 
After farrowing and during the suckling of the pigs, corn can be used 
in supplying the carbonaceous part of the ration. But it must be 
remembered that corn has a constipatory effect upon the sow, which is 
contrary to practical feeding. An addition of oil meal or grass will 
be necessary to produce laxativeness. 

For the Growing Pig. The type of fat hog in the Mississippi Val- 
ley has been molded during the first months of the life of the pigs 

LIGHT, MEDIUM, AND HEAVY GRAIN RATION FOR PIGS. 



JOCU 


Lot 2 

Light 

Grain 

Ration 

Pounds 


Lot 3 

Medium 

Grain 

Ration 

Pounds 


Lot 4 

Heavy 

Grain 

liation 

Pounds 


74.00 


73.50 


73.50 


72.50 


75.40 


95.20 


113.30 


126.20 


1.40 


21.70 


39.80 


53.70 


.02 


.34 


.63 


.85 




1.33 


2.48 


3.46 




3.86 


3 98 


4 23 




208 


2]^ 


2.28 




.66 


.30 


.16 



Average weight, each pig, August 27 | 

Average weight, each pig, October 27 | 

Average gain from August 27 to October 27. .| 

Daily gain per pig 

Average amount of corn consumed by each| 

pig per day ( 

Corn consumed per pound of eain I 

Cost of corn per TOO pounds of gain | 

Cost of pasture per 100 lbs. of gain, $14.30. . .| 
Total cost per 100 pounds of gain, $14.30... | 



2.74 I 



2.45 



2.4;< 



358 



CORN 



grown by the use of corn. For the young pig, corn lacks two essen 
tial constituents, protein or muscle-forming, and ash or bone-forming. 
The stunted, stubby, early maturing hog is the result of early forcing 
with corn. Formerly, only corn was used. The pasture grass made 
a splendid supplement. Then concentrates high in protein, were fed 
with corn. With the introduction of alfalfa, greater gains and more 
general and profitable use of corn will come about. 

Fattening Hogs. A fattening hog requires for maximum gains i 
pound of protein to 6.5 pounds of carbonaceous constituents. As corn 
alone has an excess of the latter, so much digestible matter is lost 
for want of a balance of some other feed high in protein. In Missouri, 
oil meal has given the best results when fed with corn. 

As a rule, a saving of one-third is made by adding 20 to 30 per cent 
of some high protein food to a corn ration. 

The following figures taken from Bulletin No. 91 of the Iowa Sta- 
tion, show the relative value of corn alone as compared with corn 
and supplemental foods : 



FEED 


Total Feed 

Per 100 
Pounds Gain 


Cost per 

100 Pounds 

Gain 


Daily 

Gain 

Pounds 


Profit per 

Bushrl Grain 

Feed 


Corn alone 


463.5 
370.3 
398.7 


3.56 
3.21 
3.41 


1.88 

2.865 

2.341 


57 


Corn 9, Meat Meal 1 

Corn 9. Tankaee 1 


.70 
65 







The corn alone to these hogs in dry lot, give smaller daily gains 
and less profit per bushel of corn fed. The supplemental feeds, al- 
though having to be bought, brought in larger returns for the amount 
of corn fed. 

CORN FOR SHEEP. The finishing of mutton has in the past 
been confined to certain districts of the West and North, as a special- 
ized industry. However, the recent high prices of lambs upon the 
markets have opened the way for feeders in the corn belt to try their 
hand. As a result, the farm yards of Iowa and eastern Nebraska have 
seen more sheep than ever before. The one feed is corn. As fatten- 
ing sheep require a very narrow ration, about i to 5, a hay high in pro- 
tein must be fed in order to produce heavy gains. The corn is usually 
shelled before feeding, although the lambs are usually started on 
broken ears. 

As a cheap way of finishing, many lambs have been run in corn 
fields, beginning as early as September 15th. The weeds and lower 
leaves are first cleared up, but finally a taste for corn is acquired and 
soon they are on full feed. Rape sown in the corn at the rate of 5 to 



CORN FOR CATTLE 



359 



10 pounds per acre, at the last cultivation, produces, if the stand of 
corn is thin, a large amount of succulent feed for early fall grazing. 
Very little grain is wasted by this method and the manure is left in 
the field. 

Corn, as a part of the ration of breeding ewes, should be omitted. 
If any one feed has kept the English mutton breed out of Iowa and 
Missouri, up to this time, it is corn. Until it is either supplemented 
or else replaced entirely, a healthy lamb drop cannot be expected. The 
corn ration of 1 19.7 is too wide compared with i :5.6, which has 
proved the best. 

FOR MILCH COWS. As a grain, corn lacks both the protem 
and ash which are so essential to milk production. The nutritive ra- 
tion for heavy producing cows is i 14.5, which is about one-halt a- 
wide as corn itself. No doubt the extensive feeding of corn on the 
farms in the corn belt accounts in a measure for the low milk produc- 
tion per cow in that district. The cow requires her carbonaceous con- 
stituents in the form of bulk or roughage and the protein in concen- 
trates. 

The usual farm rations of corn and corn fodder (i :i5), or of tim- 
othy and corn (1:12) are entirely too wide. With the use of alfalfa, 
however, a ratio somewhere near the proper amount of protein is 
secured. 

FOR YOUNG CATTLE. As corn will necessarily have to b^^ 
^argely used in the corn belt for winter beef calves and yearline= 
which are intended for finishing when older, two rations taken from 
*Smith are given, figured on a basis of 500-pound calf. 



Dry 

Matter 


Protein 1 S^""^"' 
hydrates 


Fat 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Red clover, 12 pounds... 
Corn, 3 pounds 


10.1 

2.6 

12.7 


.82 

.24 

1.06 


4.29 
2.00 
6.29 


.20 
.13 


Total 


.33 1:6.6 






Alfalfa, 7 pounds 

Corn stover, 6 pounds 

Corn, 3 pounds 


6.4 

3.6 

2.6 

12.6 


.77 

.10 

.24 

1.1] 


2.77 
1.94 
2.00 
6.71 


.09 
.04 
.13 
.26 




Total 


1:6.6 







Too often calves are stunted on a ration of corn and highly car- 
bonaceous roughage. However, corn being economical, the thing to 
do is to balance it as well as possible with some home-grown rough- 
age. 

As a rule, when feeding on pastures of short rotation, there is 
sufficient clover present to warrant the feeding of corn alone as a grain 

♦Profitablp Stock Feeding by H. R. Smith. Page IBO. 



360 



CORN 



ration. Smith* had this to say in regard to supplemental feeds with 
corn for cattle on grass : "During a summer period of 30 weeks five 
two-year-old Angus steers were fed an average of 17.8 pounds of 
shelled corn each per day, making an average daily gain of 1.63 
pounds. Another lot of five steers of the same kind were each fed 
17.8 pounds of grain per day, consisting of 90 per cent shelled corn and 
10 per cent of oil meal. These steers made an average gain of 2.02 
pounds per day during the same time. The pasture was alike in both 
lots. Those fed corn and oil meal required but 8.8 pounds of grain 
for one pound of increase in weight, while those fed corn alone re- 
quired 10.9 pounds. With pasture worth $3 per acre, corn worth at 
that time 33 cents per bushel, and oil meal $25 per ton, each 100 
pounds of gain on corn alone cost 13 per cent more than on corn and 
oil meal. In this experiment, if the oil meal had cost $44 per ton, 
instead of $25, nothing would have been saved by feeding it." 




CATTLE IN AN IOWA PEED LOT 



A steer requires something like 6 pounds of digestible carbonaceous 
food to I of protein. Here again, corn alone or corn and corn fod- 
der or timothy hay, are entirely too low in protein. One-third of the 
value of the digestible constituents is lost from lack of balancing with 
some concentrate high in protein or some roughage similarly consti- 
tuted. At Nebraska alfalfa and corn gave 14 per cent larger gains 
than prairie hay and corn, and 10 per cent more than prairie hay, 
corn, and oil meal.** In tests at the Iowa Station corn and wheat 
straw produced gains for $10.71 per 100 pounds; corn and grass for 

♦Profitable Stock Feeding by H. R. Smith. Page 1C7. 
**Iowa Bulletin No. 66. 



FEEDING VALUE OF BY-PRODUCTS OF CORiN 



361 



$10.20; corn, gluten meal, and wheat straw for $9.34; corn, oil meal, 
and wheat straw for $11.02. 

PREPARING CORN FOR STOCK.— Corn Meal. The grinding 
of corn would theoretically increase its digestibilit)' and therefore en- 
hance its feeding value. This is due to the greater accessibility of the 
digestive juices to the finer particles of the ground corn, and to the 
more complete mixing of the meal with the other feeds eaten, espe- 
cially roughage. 

A summary of tests at the Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio Sta- 
tions, places the saving of corn due to grinding at 7 per cent. Wis- 
consin proved a saving of 8 per cent. It is something of a question 
whether even such a saving warrants grinding for hogs. 

Although a saving of 8 per cent in the amount of corn fed 
was made at the Kansas Station in producing beef. Smith* concludes 
that this is insufficient to pay for the cost of grinding and the labor 
attached thereto. 



VALUE OF CORN MEAL AS A FOOD AS COMPARED WITH OTHER FOODS** 

Each of these foods contains the same amount of nutritive material as one pound 
of corn meal valued at 3 cents per pound. 



Kind of Food 



Cost 



App. No. 

or 
Measure 



Corn Meal 3c per lb. 

Dried Beans I 6.5c per lb. 

Bread, White i 10c loaf 

Potatoes j $1.00 per bu. 

Prunes j 1 Sc per lb. 

Cheese I 22c per lb. 

Milk I 8c per qt. 

Walnuts I 25c per lb. 

Codfish I 7c per lb. 

Cabbage | 2.5c per lb 

Meat, round steak | 20c per lb. 

Eggs I 3 5c per doz. 

Oranges | 40c per doz. 



Approximate 
Weight 



2'. qt. 



25 

20 



1 
1 

1 

5 



5 
1 
5 

13 
1 
1 

10 



I Ozs. 



1 

6 
7 

14 
14 

5 
5 

14 

14 

8 

15 



Total 
Cost 
Cents 



3 
7 

10 
10 
15 
19 
20 
33 
35 
35 
37 
56 
66 



NOTE — The value of corn meal as a food has not been fully appreciated It is 
bound to come into more common use. 



•Profitable Cattle Feeding, H. R. Smith, Page 188. 

**Compiled from data taken from estimate prepared by the Iowa Dairy and Food Commission. 



362 



CORN 



INFLUENCE UPON DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING MATERIALS, WHOLE 

OR GROUND. 



Feed 


1 Number of 
1 Animals 


Drj 

Matter 


J 


Digestion Coefficients 




Protein 


1 Nitrogen-free Extract 


Fat 


Corn Meal 

Whole Corn 

Difference 


2 horses 
2 horses 


88.4 
74.4 
14.4 


75.6 
57.8 
17.8 


95.7 
88.2 

7.5 


73.1 
47.7 
25.4 



These figures show a slight increase in percentage of digestibility 
due to grinding. 

Corn and Cob Meal vs. Ear Corn for Hogs. From results at the 
New Hampshire Station**, it was concluded that ground corn and cob 
meal had a slightly better feeding value in increasing the daily gain 
of hogs, but for practical purposes it is more economical to feed corn 
on the ear rather than hauling to the mill and grinding for feed. In 
any event, corn and cob meal is rather bulky. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN 

Supplemental foods high in protein are often used quite largely in 
the production of milk and pork. The by-products of corn are increas 
ing in amount each year because of the demand for manufactured 
foods made from corn. These by-products are not as palatable as 
might be supposed considering the palatability of corn itself. 

In any case the choice of protein foods depends upon their real 
efficiency at the current market price. This efficiency depends upon 
their total protein content together with its digestibility. Palatability 
is a. minor factor because such small amounts are fed. 
COMPOSITION OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN AS FOOD FOR STOCK.* 



Feeding Stuff 


Water 


Ash 


Protei. 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
Free Extract 


Ktlier 
Rxtract 


Corn Bran 


9.1 

10.7 

11.1 

8.1 

10.9 

65.4 

5.8 

8.1 

7.8 

8.2 

9.22 


1.3 

4.0 

2.5 

1.3 

.9 

.3 

2.8 

.7 

1.1 

0.9 

4.0 


9.0 

9.8 

9.8 
11.1 
19.7 

6.1 
31.1 
36.1 
24.0 
29.3 

6.38 


12.7 

4.1 
3.8 
9.9 
4.7 
3.1 

12.0 
1.3 
5.3 
3.3 

28.70 


62.2 
64.0 
64.5 
62.5 
54.8 
22.0 
33.4 
39.0 
51.2 
46.5 
48.70 


58 


Corn Germ 


7 4 


Hominy Chops 


8.3 


Germ Meal 


7 1 


Dried Starch and Sugar Feed 

Starch Feed (wet) 

Grano-Gluten 


9.0 

3.1 

14 9 


Cream Gluten 


14 8 


Gluten Feed 


10 6 


Gluten Meal 


11 8 


New Corn Product 


2 84 







Gluten Meal. Gluten meal as a pure product is now little 
known on the market. Consisting largely of gluten it is very rich in 
protein, reaching almost 30 per cent. Having very little foundation 
of indigestible material, care must be exercised in its feeding. 

of Henry's Feeds and Feeding except the last, which is from 



taken from Appendix 
43 Maryland Bulletin 
**New Hampshire Bulletin 66. 



'All 
No. 



BY-PRODUCTS 363 

The following table taken from Bulletin No. 156 of Virginia, shows 
the comparative value of gluten meal and cottonseed meal for milk 
production : 

Feed 



Gluten Meal | Cotton Seed Meal 



Cost per ton 

Percent of Protein 

Coefficient of Digestion 

Percent Digestible Protein 

Protein on Unit Basis (Equivalent) 

Cost per 100 lbs. of Digestible Protein. 



$28.40 
36.25 
89.00 
32.26 

103.00 
$4.40 



$27.00 
37.81 
88.00 
33.27 

100.00 
$4.05 



The authors conclude that the two feeds have nearly the same 
value in milk production. 

Based upon the comparative percentage of digestible protein and 
assuming clover to be worth $5 per ton, Smith** quotes alfalfa at $8; 
cow pea hay at $8; wheat shorts at $9; wheat bran at $9; Canadian 
peas at $12.50; cow peas at $13.60; skim milk at $2.10; soy beans at 
$21.70; oil meal (old process) at $21.50; gluten meal at $19. When 
the fats and carbohydrates are taken into consideration, assuming 
clover to be worth $5 per ton, gluten meal is worth $23 a ton. 

Corn Bran. Corn bran differs from wheat bran in containing 
more crude fiber and less protein. As a pure product when first put 
out it found but little sale. The hulls, even when ground finely, have 
very little flavor and are not palatable. 

Gluten Feed. In order to dispose of the corn bran and to 
lighten the gluten meal, the two are now mixed and a product known 
as gluten feed put on the market. By a close study of the foregoing 
table, it will be noted that the content of protein is lowered about 
5 per cent, while the percentage of crude fiber and ash is increased. 
This change widens the nutritive ratio. 

According to tests made at the New Jersey Station*, 100 pounds 
of milk were produced for 86.40 cents with gluten feed, when fed in 
conjunction with wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn silage, and corn 
stalks. 

Corn Oil Meal. — Corn Oil Cake. The residue remaining 
after all but about 10 per cent of the oil has been extracted, is 
known in the slab form as it comes from the press as "corn oil cake," 

*niilletin No. 204, New Jersey 

♦♦Profitable Stock Feeding by H. R. Smith, Page 299. 



364 CORN 

as differentiated from "oil cake," the slabs from linseed oil factories. 
The English and Scotch live stock breeders use this cake in large 
amounts, because they are reasonably sure it has not been adulterated. 
The ground form, "germ oil meal," recognized as different from "oil 
meal" or "linseed meal," is used mostly east of the Mississippi river. 
This product is very uniform in composition and contains a large 
amount of ash. 

Starch Feeds, Often with smaller glucose factories located 
in districts where considerable feeding is carried on, the by-products 
are sold collectively under the head of "Starch Feeds." Sometimes 
they are taken from the factory in the wet condition. They are in 
such case known as "wet starch feeds" or "wet glucose feed" and are 
variable in percentage of digestible nutrients. When dried they may 
be mixed with other feeds. 

Hominy Chops. The hull, germ, and the starchy refuse from 
the hominy factory, are sold collectively under the term "hominy 
chops." Because of a uniformity in the composition of this feed it is 
very popular on the market. This fact is evident from tests at Geneva, 
New York.* The average of 7 samples showed 10.6 per cent 
protein and 46 per cent starch and sugar. However, when the screen- 
ings and pieces of cob are returned to this feed, the percentage of 
crude fiber may run as high as 7 per cent. 

Distiller's Grains. In tests at the New Jersey Station** the 
average of 2 samples of corn distiller's grains showed 5.79 per 
cent water, 33.34 per cent protein, 12.05 P^r cent fat, and 11. 17 per 
cent crude fiber. These were in the dried commercial form. As fed 
at the distillery the solid material is not separated from the slop. In 
this form the percentage of water runs as high as 94 per cent, with 
only 1.90 per cent protein and .9 per cent fat. 

The New Corn Product. Investigations by the*** Maryland Ex- 
periment Station shows that this corn stalk product is much more val- 
uable than the original stalk containing the pith. Not only does it 
contain more absolute nutriment, but the nutriment contained is more 
digestible. 

The following tabulated data from the Maryland Station shows 
the relative feeding values of the new corn product, shredded corn 
fodder, timothy hay, wheat bran, corn blades, and shucks. These 
different feeds were fed to well bred steers and all excrement and 
urine carefully collected for a period of seven days. 

♦Bulletin No. 166, New York (Geneva). 
♦♦Bulletin 193, New Jersey. 
♦♦♦Bulletin 43, Maryland. 



COLLATERAL RLADINd 



365 



POUNDS OF DIGESTTBLE MATTER IN 100 POUNDS. 



New Corn Product .... 
Corn Blades and Shucks 
Shredded Corn Fodder. 

Timothy i 54.6 

Wheat Bran 58.6 



Dry 

Sub- 
stance 

"57.6" 

58.8 

46.8 



Ash 



Pro- 
tein 



L9 
1.5 
1.3 
1.9 
2.4 



3.8 
3.1 
1.6 
3.2 
14.6 



Crude 
Fiber 



17.3 
21.8 
19.0 
16.6 
2.4 



Nitrnjren 

Free 
Extr:ict 


Fat 


Nutri- 

• ivp 
Ratio 


32.2 


2.4 


1:14.4 


30.3 


1 3 


1:17.7 


23.2 


17 


1:28.7 


30.0 


2.9 


1:16.6 


35.9 


3.3 


1:3.1 



COLLATERAL READING: 

Report on Chemical Composition of Certain Varieties of Indian 
Corn, 

Ottawa Bulletin No. I2. 
Composition of Maize, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 50. 
Feeding Cotton Seed, Cottonseed Meal and Corn I0 Dairy Cows. 

Mississippi Bulletin No. 60. 
Corn Plant, Feeding Value of. 

Fanners' Bullc-tin No. 97. 
Grinding Corn for Cows, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 107. 
Soft Corn, 

Farmers Bulletin No. 210. 
Important Facts About Corn, 

Maine Bulletin No. 17. 
Corn, Barley and Speltz, Relative Feeding Value of, 

South Dakota Bulletin No. 81. 
Corn and Corn Meal, Relative Value of (for feeding hogs), 

Wisconsin Bulletin No. 45. 
Structure of Corn Kernel and Composition of its Parts, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 87. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CORN FODDER 



When the entire corn plant is cut, allowed to cure by standing in 
shocks, and fed without removing the ears, the name "corn fodder" 
is applied. If the ears are husked from the fodder, "corn stover" 
remains. "Fodder corn" refers to corn which has been planted in any 
manner with the intention of securing rather small ears and stalks for 
fodder purposes only. 

Iowa planted 10,248,000 acres to corn in 1914. The average yield 
was 38 bushels. If each acre produced three tons of corn fodder, 3,340 
pounds of stover per acre were left by husking the 38 bushels and leav- 
ing the stalks, leaves and husks in the field. However some of this is 
saved by pasturing. 

MANNER OF PLANTING. Thick planting tends to reduce the 
size of the ears and stalk. The entire plant is less woody. Neverthe- 
less, in too close planting the plant often becomes stunted in growth, 
the leaves become yellow and lifeless, and the fodder obtained there- 
from is tasteless and less nutritious. Numerous nubbins are desir- 
able. Checking 4 to 5 kernels to the hill on land inclined to be 
foul, or drilling 6 to 10 inches apart on clean land, will give satis- 
factory returns in most parts of the central states. 

DRILLING VS. HILL PLANTING 
Average Yields for Four Years at Ohio Station. 



Distribution 


1894 
Bu. 


1895 
Bu. 


1896 
Bu. 


1897 
Bu. 


4 yrs. 
gain 


Av. Lbs. 
Stover 


Ears & Nubs 


of Seed 


^Ears )fNubs 


1 kl. every 12 in. . . 


44.21 


52.97 


43.45 


33.28 


33.28 


2.528 


68 


32 


1 kl. " 18 in... 


39.12 


40.45 


30.30 




36.62 


2,229 


77 


23 


2 kls. " 24 in... 


41.19 


54.94 


42.72 


32.72 


43.14 


2.433 


64 


37 


3 kls. " 36 in... 


39.60 


45.01 


42.39 


31.76 


39.69 


2.169 


62 


36 


4 kls. " 42 in... 


38.83 


48.35 


41.68 


29.84 


39.56 


2.250 


56 


44 


4 kls. " 48 in.. . 


39.90 


50.46 


38.19 




42.85 


2.180 


63 


37 



Another experiment of planting various numbers of kernels per 
hill gave the following results : 

Kernels Per Hill. Yield, Bushels. 

I 47-6 

i^ 60.6 



TIME OF HARVESTING 267 

2 67.0 

23^ 77-5 

3 790 

3^ 77-7 

4 80.0 

AVi 87.0 

5 88.0 

Experiments repeated three times with Legal Tender, Reid's Yel 

low Dent, and home-grown seed, conducted by Mr, Fred McCulloch, 
of Hartwick, Iowa, gave the following results : 

Kernels Per Hill. Yield Per Acre, Bushels. 

2 40.0 

3 47-5 

zY^ 56.0 

4 • 5^0 

One experiment by Mr. McCulloch showing yield of grain and 
stover: 

Yield. 
Kernels Per Hill. Grain, Bushels. Stover, Pounds. 

1 28.17 1,620 

2 44-69 2,480 

3 54-53 3,168 

4 57-6 3.616 

VARIETIES. Heavy leafing varieties and those which have a 
tendency to excessive tillering produce more fodder than those vari- 
eties which have long been selected for grain production only. Vari- 
eties adapted to a given locality furnish the surest returns, although 
the southern rank growing kinds produce a great deal of coarse for- 
age. 

TIME OF HARVESTING. An Iowa Test. Bulletin No. 23 of 
the Iowa Experiment Station gives the results of an investigation to 
determine the best time to cut corn fodder. The following conclu- 
sions were reached : 

1. The stover of a crop of corn seems to reach the highest yield 
and the best condition for feeding at the stage of growth indicated by 
a well-dented kernel and the first drying of the blades. 

2. The grain of a crop of corn seems to reach the highest yield 
and the best condition for utility at the stage of growth indicated by 
a well-ripened ear and a half-dried blade, and the best time for secur- 
ing the crop with reference to the highest utility of both corn and 
stover would be found at a stage of ripening between the above. 



368 



CORN 



3. The loss resulting from stover remaining in the field under 
ordinary stalk-field conditions two months after ripening, amounts 
to about one-half of the dry matter and more than one-half of the 
total feeding value. 

4. After the stover has reached the best condition for cutting, 
there is a rapid decline in both yield and feeding value. 

5. There is but little change in the composition of the grain of a 
corn crop in the several stages of ripening; and there is little, if any 
decline in either yield or feeding value after the best condition is 
reached, nor does there seem to be much gain, except a small increase 
in yield after the denting stage of the ears is reached. 

6. No material change occurs in the composition of the corn cobs 
during the several stages of ripening. 

The experiments from w^hich these conclusions were arrived at 
were with five plats of one-fifth of an acre each, of good, well-grown 
field corn, put in shock at intervals of one week, commencing on Sep- 
tember 17th and ending October 15th. In addition a plat of equal area 
was left in the field until December 17th, when the stalks were cut 
as in shocking and weighed and sampled for analysis. Of stover, 
plat No. I, in earliest cut, yielded 2 tons per acre; the second plat, 
2.12 tons per acre; the third and fourth plats each, 2.2 tons per acre; 
the fifth plat, 1.77 tons per acre, and the last plat, which was left stand- 
ing until December 17th, 1.2 tons per acre. 

As to the grain, plat No. i yielded 53.6 bushels of ear corn per 
acre; plat No. 2, cut a week later, 57.9 bushels; plat No. 3, 63.6 bush- 
els ; plat No. 4, 64.3 bushels ; plat No. 5, 60.3 bushels. (The yield from 
the plat that was left until December 17th is, for some reason, not 
given.) 

INCREASE IN NUTRIENTS DURING THE STAGES 
OF MATURITY 

The following table gives the relative amount of water and dry 
matter in the corn crop at different stages of maturity and shows the 
loss accompanying the cutting of fodder when too green. The experi- 
ment was conducted by Todd, of New York (Geneva) Station. 





July 30th 


August 9th 


Auerust 21st 


Sept. 7th 
Kernels 
Glazed 


Sept. 23d 




In Tassel 


In Silk 


Milk Stag-e 


Fully Kipe 


Dry Matter 


1,619 


3,078 


4,643 


7,202 


7,918 


Albuminoids 


239.8 


436.8 


478.7 


643.9 


677.8 


Crude Fiber 


514.2 


872.9 


1,262.0 


1,755.9 


1,734.0 


Nitrogen-Free 












Extract 


653.9 


1,399.3 


2,441.3 


4,239.8 


4,827.6 


Ether Extract 


72.2 


167.8 


228.9 


260.0 


314.3 


Ash 


138.9 
18,045 


201.3 

25,745 


232.2 
32,600 


302.5 
32,295 


364.2 


Total Green Crop. 


28,460 


Water 


61,426 


22,666 


27,957 


25,093 


20,542 







CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 



369 



The following table further shows an increase in dry matter as 
maturity advances : 

Milk Glazed Ripe Increase in 

August 2ist, September 7th, September 23d, Dry Matter. 

4,643 pounds, 7,202 pounds, 7,9i8 pounds, 3,275 pounds. 

Not only is there an increase in total dry matter as the period of 
maturity advances, but the digestible materials, especially protein and 
carbohydrates, are deposited in larger percentages, as shown by the 
following tables : 

ALBUMINOID AND AMIDE NITROGEN OF THE MATURING CORN CROP. 
New York (-Geneva) Station. 



Date 


Stage of Maturity ) %^™- 


Amide 

Nitrogen 


Total 

Nitrogen 


July 30th, 
August 6th, 
August 21st, 
September 7th, 
September 23d, 


Tasseled, 
Silked, 

Kernels in Milk, 
Corn glazed. 
Corn ripe. 


27.4 
44.6 
66.4 
78.5 
91.1 


11.0 
25.2 
17.3 
24.5 
17.4 


38.4 

69.9 

77.6 

103.0 

108 5 



This table shows that there is a steady increase in the albuminoid 
nitrogen, in digestible form^ while the amide nitrogen fluctuated at the 
different periods, but was less at time of ripening than at earlier dates. 

INCREASE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN RIPENING CORN. 
New York (Geneva) Station. 



Date 


Stage of Maturity 


Glucose 


Sucrose 


Starch 


July 30th, 


Tasseled, 


58.3 


9.1 


122.2 


August 6th, 


Silked, 


300.4 


110.8 


491.3 


August 21st, 


In milk, 


665.0 


129.0 


706.7 


September 1th, 


Glazed, 


720.2 


95.1 


1,735.0 


September 23d, 


Ripe, 


538.4 


148.9 1 


2,852.9 



Of these changes, Todd writes : 

"The total starch per acre increased more than twenty-three 
times between tasseling and harvesting, a period of 55 days. From the 
stage of glazing corn until full ripening, the increase in dry matter was 
716 pounds, the increase in nitrogen-free extract, 587 pounds, while 
the increase of sugar and starch was 989 pounds, or greater by 273 
pounds than the entire gain in crop. That is, much of the nitrogen- 
free extract, which, at period of glazing of corn, was in the transitory 
state, had been translocated and transformed into sugars and starch.' 

Jordan studying this same subject states : 

"Owing to the relatively large production of sugars and starches 
in the late stages of growth, a pound of the dry substance of the 



370 



CORN 



mature, well-eared corn plant possesses a higher nutritive value than 
at any earlier stage of growth," 

From the above scientific findings as a basis, it is advisable not to 
cut fodder until well eared and in the glazing stage. 

♦CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRAINS OF CORN AT DIFFERENT STAGES 

OF MATURITY. 

Analysis of One Complete Row of Kernels from Ears Harvested on Different 

Dates. 



■ MlPS (if 

Mirvest 


Se'ii'mljer 
6, 190r, 


lSepleml>er 
12. imf< 


.Seiilember 
19, lOnc 


September 
26. 1906 


Oct iber 
3. 1906 


-ictdber 
10. 1006 


Water 

Proteids 

Ca'-bo- 
hydrates . . 

Fats 

Ash 


48.47 
7.59 

40.72 
1.80 
1.42 


39.52 
7.35 

49.90 
2.03 
1.20 


33.61 
7.14 

56.05 
2.09 
1.11 


31.33 
7.05 

58.42 
2.16 
1.04 


24.54 
6.98 

64.58 
283 
1.07 


19.35 
7.10 

69.30 
3.15 
1.10 



*CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COB AT DIFFERENT STAGES OP 

MATURITY, 



Dates of 


September 


September 


September 


September 


October 


October 


Harvest 


5, 1906 


12. 1906 


19, 1906 


26, 1906 


3, 1906 


10, 1906 


Water 


63.94 


40.40 


36.28 


35.43 


37.18 


38.38 


Proteids 


.90 


1.01 


.42 


.52 


.32 


.43 


Carbo- 














hydrates . . 


34.31 


57.75 


62.79 


63.87 


62.30 


60.96 


Fats 


.37 


.27 


.19 


.12 


.15 


.19 


Ash 


.48 


1 .57 


.32 


.06 


.05 


.04 



METHOD OF HARVESTING. For many years corn fodder 
was cut by hand. A man with long arms, a steady stroke, and an 
intelligent understanding of shocking, could thus cut and shock daily 
from 50 to 75 shocks each ten hills square, borne men have cut as 
high as 100 such shocks. The rate paid was usually five cents per 
shock ten hills square. Larger shocks cost correspondingly more. 

Later, a number of patent devices appeared for cutting corn. Sleds 
or low platforms on wheels with blades on the sides were used. One 
horse drew this down between two rows and two men sat on the 
machine to catch the stalks as they were cut. When an armful was 
gathered the horse was stopped and the men then carried the cut corn 
to shocks arranged at convenient intervals through the field. An- 
other machine cut the corn and shocked it over a form on a platform to 
the rear. When a shock was completed a crane lifted it and swung it 
off to the ground. 

Corn fodder harvested in Iowa and the corn states today is cared 
for by means of improved machinery — the corn binder and the corn 

♦Taken from the thesis of D. Bustemante. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 371 

shocker. The advantage and preference lie with the corn binder 
chiefly for the following reasons. The shocker, so called, does not 
make shocks that are large enough, and it is a heavy, cumbersome ma- 
chine. The fodder is in a less suitable form to be handled and there 
is much more loss due to exposure. The advantage of having the fod- 
der in bundles is greatly in favor of the work of the corn binder. Only 
about one-half as much can be cut in one season as with a corn binder. 




CORN BINDER AT WORK. 

This machine is used to cut standing corn that is to be saved for the fodder 
or ensilage. 



Probably among corn harvesting machines the corn binder has 
proved itself the most economical and useful to the farmer. When we 
compare it with the primitive methods we find that it is invaluable to 
the corn raiser who harvests for fodder or ensilage. The period when 
corn fodder is just right for ensilage or fodder is only a few days 
in duration. Here the corn binder has a decided advantage, for with 
it three men and two team.s can put seven acres into the shock in one 
day, while by the hand method one acre per man is considered a fair 
day's work; thus a man is able to cut and shock twice as much by the 
use of the corn binder as against hand methods. 

The life of a corn binder will be good for i,ooo acres. The first 
cost is about $125. Allowing $50 for repairs, it will amount to $175. 
or on the basis of 1,000 acres the machine cost will be about 20 cents 
per acre. Allowing $2.00 per day for men, $2.00 per day for each 
team, and about 50 cents per acre for twine, the approximate cost of 



372 CORN 

cutting and shocking by hand and with a corn binder for one day will 

be as follows : 

Binder. Hand. 

Three men $6.00 $6.00 

Two teams 3.00 

Twine 4-5^^ 

Machine wear 1.80 

Board for men i.oo i.oo 

Totals $16.30 $7.00 

Acres cut 9 3 

Average cost per acre 1.81 2.33 

1 his shows a saving of about 52 cents per acre in favor of the corn 
l^inder. 




CORN HARVESTER AND SHOCKER 
Used to cut and shock corn fodder with a minimum of labor. 



While the saving is not so noticeable it will be seen that the more 
convenient condition the fodder is in for handling will reduce the com- 
parative cost in preparing for feeding later on in the season. 



SHOCKING CORN FODDER 373 

SHOCKING OF FODDER CORN. Much loss is usually en 
tailed by shocking corn fodder in a careless, slipshod manner. It is a 
common sight to see from 25 to 75 per cent of the shocks in a field 
nodding their heads and sprawling about upon the ground. Such 
work is due to carelessness and may be easily overcome. Shocks 
should be made of good size so that little loss from leaching and 
weathering is entailed. It is best to have two men working together, 
so that they may assist each other in getting the shock started, as 
this is the important point in good shock making. If very green the 
bundles should be allowed to lie upon the ground after cutting so as to 
permit of some curing before shocking. This should not be allowed to 
go far enough to cause the leaves to become brittle. 

If the corn is fairly ripe it may be shocked as soon as it is cut. 
The shocks should be set in an upright position, and the tops well com 
pressed together with a quarter-inch rope which has a ring or hook 
m one end. A shock to stand well must be braced from all sides 
and when the bundles are set up the butts should be placed down with 
some force and not thrown at the shock in a careless manner. A jack 
may be used to advantage in getting the shock started. A shock 
should contain from 30 to 40 bundles, depending somewhat upon the 
size and dryness. 

In commenting upon his method of shocking corn, Mr. John 
Gould, in writing to the Ohio Farmer in the fall of 1904, says, "The 
bundles as delivered by the harvester are left on the ground a short 
time to cure out and then the job commences. First, a bundle is laid 
on the ridge of a row, as that is usually a trifle raised above the level. 
Another bundle is then laid exactly crosswise of this, and this adding 
of crossed bundles goes on until the "X" is four or more feet high, as 
this "X"-making goes on the tops and butts of the bundles are reversed 
so that the top is always covering a butt below it which makes a per- 
fect roofing in the angles of this." 

When a shock is well put up it should stand a whole year without 
any lodging. If well closed at the top little loss will result from 
penetration of moisture and the fodder when taken out of the shock 
will be fresh and green in color. 

YIELD. Four tons of cured corn fodder is a good )'ield for an 
acre. Almost one-half of the weight will be in the ears. That pro- 
portion varies with the season, stage of maturity, variety, and thick- 
ness of planting. 

With thick planting the yield of stover is greater, also the propor- 
tion of stover to grain. In a test at the Illinois Station, corn planted 

(13) 



374 



CORN 



in hills 3 inches apart yielded 3.6 tons of stover to i of grain, 
while that planted 12 inches apart yielded 1.3 tons of stover to 1 ton 
of grain. The former yielded 59 bushels per acre, 13 of which were 
good and 46 poor. The corn planted 3 inches apart in the row 
yielded about 600 pounds more digestible matter per acre than that 
12 inches apart. Too much importance should not be placed on 
this increased yield, for in a dry year, the reverse might have resulted. 
The fact that 46 bushels out of 59 produced in the corn 3 inches 
apart were poor in quality, is an important consideration. 




CORN IN THE SHOCK. 



METHODS OF FEEDING CORN FODDER. Feeding Whole. 
Bound corn fodder is much more conveniently handled than that 
which is loose. When fed on the hillside in the pasture the bands 
need not be cut. This practice has the advantage of keeping the waste 
stalks away from the barnyard, besides aiding very much in the 
spring of the year in holding the moisture which would otherwise run 
off. Some waste follows the feeding of corn fodder on the ground, 
but in dry winter weather it furnishes a means of drawing breeding 
stock out for exercise. 



SHREDDING 



375 



Many large and successful cattle feeders start steers on feed by 
this means. By nosing over the fodder a taste of the corn is acquired 
and soon grain in bunks can be supplied. By this time only sufficient 
fodder should be fed to act as a roughage; otherwise the waste is 
excessive. When fed in the barnyard, a manger with planks or poles 
arranged horizontally gives the best satisfaction. 

Shredding. 

Fodder cutters which clip the stalks and leaves into inch lengths 
have been used to a limited extent. The shredder, which tears the 
stalk into linear strips, crushes the leaves and husks the ears, is very 
much used at present. Some machines husk the corn and elevate it 
separately, leaving but the shredded stover. Fodder which has been 
shredded is usually blown or elevated into the barn or else stacked 
in a feeding rack so that it can be fed without a second handling. 




HUSKER AND CUTTER. 
Used for removing the ears and cutting fodder which has been shocked in the 
field. 

Corn fodder is very unsatisfactory to handle in the stable, 
and for this reason farmers have resorted to shredding, which 
consists in cutting up the fodder into very short fragments about 
one and one-half to two inches, or somewhat longer. When the fod- 



376 CORN 

der is in this condition it may be blown by the machine into the barn 
or onto a high stack outside. It is more easily handled when thus 
cut up finely. The parts not eaten by the cows or young stock are 
shoved out of the manger and utilized as bedding. For the purpose of 
soaking up the liquid portions of animal excreta nothing can excel 
shredded fodder. Professor Henry, of Wisconsin, found very satis- 
factory results in feeding shredded fodder. He states that there was 
a saving of 24 per cent by feeding in the shredded form. 

Not only does shredding put the fodder in better condition, but it 
is a labor-saving device in that it husks out the ears of corn that the 
corn fodder contains. 

Corn fodder when shredded should be in a well cured, dry condi- 
tion. It should not contain over 25 per cent of moisture. If it is put 
in too wet there will be an immense amount of heating and much 
loss. 

Cost of Shredding. 

"Bufif Jersey," in Hoard's Dairyman, gives cost of shredding 10 

acres of fodder. 

Three men and teams at $2.50 for i^ days. . .$11.25 

Two men in field at $1.50 for i>4 days 4.50 

One man at crib at $1.50 for i^^ days 2.25 

Engine and two men 10.00 

Board of men 3.00 

Coal 4.50 

Total $35.50 

By 425 bushels corn husked at 3 cents 12.75 

By 25 tons fodder at $2.00 50.00 

$62.75 
Saved by shredding 27.25 

The "Breeder's Gazette" of December 6, 1905, gives tlfe opinions 
of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio men, who furnish some data on the 
shredding of corn fodder. 

In shredding, the expense runs about as follows, according to the 

Illinois correspondent : 

Per Acre. 

The Shredder $1.20 

Loading and hauling i.oo 

Cribbing corn 15 

Total $2.25 



LOSSES IN CORN FODDER 377 

As to the feeding value this man states that it may take the place 
of timothy hay very successfully in any ration, for the part eaten is 
nearly as valuable. Some complaint is made by farmers on account of 
the heating of the shredded fodder, but if the heating does not go too 
far it is not very detrimental. 

Some of the advantages of shredding are a decided increase in the 
amount of roughage, a better preservation of food stuff, economy of 
storage, the corn husking is done more easily and cheaply, and the 
farmer is insured a good supply of bedding. Furthermore, a farmer 
following out such a system is able to keep more and better stock upon 
the same area of land. 

The Indiana farmer says in part: "In Clark County shredding of 
fodder is esteemed very highly, not so much because of its increased 
value, but because it fulfills the foregoing advantages so well. The 
operation of husking and shredding is performed at one operation and 
is much cheaper and more economical than the old system of cutting 
and husking from the shock by hand." 

The Ohio party says that he considers shredded fodder a valuable 
form of roughage when preserved in a good condition. Shredding 
is not done until the sap is well dried out of the stalk, as this insures 
good keeping qualities. When filling the mow with shredded fodder 
it is well scattered and sprinkled with salt. The application of salt 
aids in the curing and makes the fodder more palatable for the stock 
to eat. Shredded fodder is much better kept in the barn, although 
many times it is made into a high stack out of doors, and fed by simply 
pushing or pitching the feed into an open rack where the cattle can 
reach it. 

Our own experience tells us that in order to make shredding profit- 
able we must have the best quality of fodder and a good yield of grain, 
so that the husking and preparation of the fodder is done at the least 
possible expense. We can hardly agree that fodder containing a small 
per cent of corn will yield much profit by shredding. 

Threshing Corn Fodder. 

Threshing of corn which has been followed heretofore has given 
away to the use of regular corn machinery, such as the shredder and 
corn husker. This system consisted in running the corn fodder through 
an ordinary threshing machine, which left the grain in a shelled form 
ready for feeding purposes. The threshed stalks were either run into 
the barn or into a stack much the same as straw from threshed grain. 

LOSSES IN CORN FODDER. Considerable loss occurs in fod- 
der exposed to weather conditions in washing and bleaching and by 



378 CORN 

the wind blowing the leaves away. This brings up the question of 
shredding as a means of saving and preservation. 

Henry Wallace, of Wallace's Farmer, writes that 2 tons of 
shredded fodder in the early fall are worth 3 in the field, February 
ist, exposed to the weather, provided, of course, that the early shred- 
ded fodder was put in the barn free from dew or rain. It is the rain 
and dew on stored hay and fodder and not the sap they contain that 
makes conditions favorable for the action of bacteria, resulting in fer- 
mentation. 

Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" has the following paragraph on the 
subject of "Loss in Fodder:" 

"We are told of a loss of nearly one-fourth of dry matter and pro- 
tein which the crop contained at harvest time, by preserving corn 
forage in the usual manner. This seems incredible, but the subject 
has been studied by too many Stations with unanimity of results to 
admit of further question. Cooke has shown that heavy losses occur 
in shock corn in the dry climate of Colorado. The substances lost 
through wasting are protein and nitrogen-free extract (sugar, starch, 
etc.), the more valuable portions of the forage. Now, it is not possible 
to entirely prevent the losses by placing the cured fodder under shelter 
or in the stack, for it has been found that the forage continues to 
waste even under these favorable conditions!" 

FEEDING VALUE OF CORN FODDER. Fodder corn grown 
so thickly as to allow only the formation of nubbins, furnishes for the 
farmer one of the cheapest and best forms of roughage obtainable for 
horses, mules and colts. Green corn fodder when fed in liberal 
quantities to work horses during the late summer months is greedily 
eaten. During the winter months the farmer will find that the colts 
relish good green corn fodder much better than do the cattle. It is less 
dusty and there is much less danger in feeding it to horses than there 
is in feeding musty hay. The leaves contain considerable nutriment 
and will be entirely cleaned up when fed in the manger, rack, or in the 
open upon the frozen ground. When the farmer compares the value 
of corn fodder in contrast to timothy hay, considering the amount that 
may be grown, he must come to the conclusion that it is one of the 
most economical as well as most nutritious forms of roughage that can 
be produced upon the farm. 

Corn fodder also furnishes one of the best substitutes for ensilage 
that has yet been found. When corn fodder is harvested at the right 



CORN FODDER VS. SILAGE 



379 



time it furnishes a feed for cows that will not only be relished by them, 
but that will result in a good flow of milk. The corn fodder must be, 
however, preserved in large shocks and stored in a shed of some sort 
to protect it from the bad effects of stormy weather. If corn fodder 
be left in the fields the mice may destroy considerable, especially if the 
snow covers the ground and the winter is bad. If much drifting of 
the snow takes place, the difficulty of getting the fodder is quite an 
item of labor. The ordinary cow giving an average flow of milk will 
daily consume from lo to 15 pounds of good corn fodder. 

Corn Fodder vs. Silage. 

The following table arranged by Woll gives the average digestion 
coefficients for corn silage and green and cured fodder corn : 



Forage 


M?t7er 1 ^^^ 


Pro- 
tein 


(JruUe 1 Nitfiigeu- 1 i-.ilier 
Filler | Free Extrnc (Kxtract 


Corn silage | 66 | 31 

Cured fodder corn 66 j 34 

Green fodder corn 68 | 35 


53 
55 
61 


67 70 '■ 74 
66 69 i 72 
61 74 1 81 



It will be noted in the above table that there is very little differ 
ence in the digestibility of cured fodder corn and corn silage. Both 
of these forms, however, are less digestible than green fodder. 

Corn Fodder vs. Hay. 

Professor Henry, of Wisconsin, in experimenting with the relative 
value of fodder with mixed hay and clover hay for dairy cows, found 
that I ton of mixed hay was equivalent in results to 3 tons of 
fodder. Also 1 ton of clover hay was equal to a little more than 
3 tons of fodder. The hay was of excellent quality. The fodder 
yielded 2% tons per acre, besides a 70-bushel corn crop. According 
to this, it would take but 2 or 3 acres of corn to take the place 
of I acre of hay for roughage, and still produce a heavy grain crop. 

Digestible Nutrients in Corn Stover. 

Digestible nutrients in one acre of corn and stover. Average of 
results from four experiment stations. 

Digestible Nutrients. Ears. 
Pounds. 

Protein 244 

Carbohydrates .. ..2,301 
Ether extract 125 

Tot9 1 2,670 

Per cent 63 



Stover. 


Total Crop 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


83 


327 


1,473 


3,774 


22 


147 


1,578 


4,248 


37 


100 



380 



CORN 



The data is in regard to crops grown for grain, but will compare 
favorably with the average crop in Iowa, cut for fodder. 

Patterson, of Maryland, found that under Maryland conditions 48 
per cent of the nutrients is in the ear and 52 per cent in the various 
other parts of stover. 

Redding, of Georgia, found about two-thirds of nutrients in the 
ear and the remainder in the stover, thus corroborating Armsby ;• 
results. ^ 

Proportion and Composition of Parts of Corn Stover. 

*Weights and Proportions of Parts of Corn Stover. 

Weight. Proportion. 

Pounds. Per cent. 

Leaves and husks 55.0 65.2 

Stalks minus pith 20.7 24.5 

Pith 8.7 10.3 

Total 84.4 loo.o 

Out of a total of 84.4 pounds the leaves and husks constituted 65.2 
per cent, or 55 pounds. 

♦♦COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF CORN STOVER. 





AIR-DRY MATERIAL 




Per cent 
Water 


Per cent 
Ash 


Per cent 
Protein 


Per cent 
Fiber 


Per cent 
Nitrogen- 
Free Extract 


Per ct. 

Fat 


Whole Stover 

Stover without Pith 

Pith 


19.81 
12.21 
13.27 


4.55 
4.58 
3.92 


4.19 26.02 
4.60 28.55 
3.02 29.15 


42.87 
47.35 
45.77 


2.56 
2 71 
4.87 



***DIGESTIBILITY OF CORN STOVER. 
Coefficients. 



Per cent 
Dry 

Matter 



Per cent 
Organic 
Matter 



Per cent 
Protein 



Per cent 
Fiber 



Per cent 
Nitrogen- 
Free Extract 



Per cent 
Fat 



Stover with Pith . .. | 
Stover without Pith] 



53.5 
55.1 



56.7 
57.2 



16.6 
20.5 



64.3 
62.7 



56.8 
56.6 



76.2 
72.0 



*Bulletin No. 141 New York (Geneva). 
**Composition of Different Parts of Corn Stover. 
'**New York (Geneva) No. 141. 



VALUE OF STALK FIELDS 381 

THE VALUE OF STALK FIELDS. Depending upon the sever- 
ity of the winter and the amount of snow on the ground, the value 
of stalk fields varies. 15 to 25 cents per acre formerly bought the 
best of fields, but in recent years 50 cents to $1.50 an acre have been 
paid. Dense foliage and heavy husks produce considerable roughage 
upon which to winter stock cattle. Close stocking during the winter 
facilitates spring work because less stalks remain upright to bother in 
preparing the ground. If cattle or horses are left in the fields too late 
in the spring the soil is liable to be puddled by trampling so as to ruin 
the tilth for a whole season. 

TURNING STOCK IN THE UNHUSKED FIELDS. In the 

western part of the corn belt some farmers do not husk their corn at 
all. The crops are fed at home and the finished product turned off in 
the form of beef, mutton, or pork. Since the fields are fenced, there is 
no reason why the animals themselves should not gather their own 
feed, and such is the practice in vogue. In early autumn sheep (pref- 
erably western lambs) are turned in to eat the weeds, grass, and down 
corn. They are then taken out and put on regular feed in the yard. 
About the middle of October the two or three-year-old fattening steers 
are let into the field. These cattle have been previously brought up to 
full feed of corn, either old or new, usually newly cut corn. For the 
first two weeks they are only allowed in the field a few hours daily, 
but later are given free access to the crop. The hogs, which are 
spring shoats, are not turned in until three or four weeks later, as they 
make the fodder somewhat distasteful to the cattle. 

Advantages of This Practice : 

First, labor saving in both husking the corn and preparing it for 
feed. 

Second, the husks take the place of hay or shocked fodder which 
may be used as roughage and which costs labor and time. 

Third, all the manure from both cattle and hogs is left right on the 
land in an available form and not deposited in the feed yard to be 
leached out by the rains before it can be spread. Of course, during 
the finishing period of feeding, closer attention and confinement is 
required. There is positively very little or no waste. During the fall 
of 1905, on a farm in western Iowa, forty acres were handled in this 
manner. The following spring there was hardly a grain of corn to be 
seen, the cobs laid on the ground, and the stalks were easily turned 
under by the plow. 



382 CORN 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Cornstalk Disease of Cattle, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 58. 

Proportion of Grain to Stover, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 56. 

Indian Corn as a Fodder Plant, 
Ottawa Bulletin No. 12. 

Cornstalk Disease. 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 52. 

Feeding Corn Stover, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 66. 

Why Pull Your Fodder, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 104. 

Fodder, 

Arkansas Bulletin No. 24. 

Cornstalk Disease, 

Indiana Circular No. 3. 

Composition and Digestibilitv of Corn Fodder and Corn Stover 
Illinois Bulletin No. 58. 

Corn for Forage, Varieties for, 

South Dakota Bulletin No. 81. 



miNiiii 



CHAPTER XVII. 



CORN SILAGE AND CORN SILAGE 
PRODUCTION 



HISTORICAL 



IN EUROPE. The preservation of green food in silos commenced 
more than one hundred years ago. In 1786 Symonds wrote of Italians 
preserving fresh leaves for cattle in casks and pits in the ground. In 
1843 Johnston, an Englishman, published an article on preserving green 
clover, grasses, and vetches in pits, basing his statements on observa- 
tions made in Germany. Pits v^ere dug 10 to 12 feet square and 
about as deep, the sides lined with wood, and a clay floor made. The 
green stuff was placed in the pit and plenty of salt scattered over it 
from time to time. When the pit was full, the top was well salted and 
a close-fitting cover of boards was placed over it. Dirt to the depth 
of a foot or so was thrown on the cover to exclude air. In a few 
days, after the contents had fermented and settled, the cover was 
removed, and more green fodder was thrown in, and the cover igain 
put on. In commenting on the contents of such a pit, Johnston notes 
that the grass when thus fermented had the ajDpearance of being 
boiled, had a sharp acid taste, and was greedily eaten by cattle. 

In England, between i860 and 1870, Samuel Jones stored rye, cut 
green and chopped, and fed the fermented material on an extensive 
scale. 

Adolph Reihlen, a sugar manufacturer of Stuttgart, Germany 
probably stored the first green maize in pits. He also preserved green 
beet leaves and beet pulp in silos with marked success. He had lived 
a number of years in the United States and on his return to 
Germany experimented with large dent corn, the seed of which 
he carried with him from this country. As the crop did not 
always mature in that climate, the green crop was pitted after the 
manner of the beet refuse. This work was conducted between i860 
and 1870, and the results were published in the German and French 
papers of the time. The use of the silo was strongly urged upon the 



384 CORN 

people of France, and considerable attention was given to the subject. 
Many farmers built silos on the basis of Reihlen's experience. In 
1877, A. Gofifart, of France, wrote a book on "Ensilage," which was 
translated into English and published in New York a year or two later. 

IN UNITED STATES. The first to prepare silage in the United 
States were Manly Miles, of Michigan, who built two silos in 1875, and 
Francis Morris, of Maryland, who commenced experiments in this 
line in 1876. One of the earliest experimenters with silage in the 
United States was John M. McBryde, whose investigations began at 
the University of Tennessee in 1879. Several other silos were also 
built by people in the eastern states within the next few years. In 1882, 
in a report on silage by the United States Department of Agriculture, 
statements were published from 91 persons who had silos, 81 of 
which were in Atlantic seaboard states. No doubt numerous others 
were in use at that time. 

At the present time the silo is found on many thousands of farms 
in the United States, especially in dairy regions, and it may be con- 
sidered a well-established feature in American farm economy where 
stock feeding is practiced. In fact, the use of silage for beef cattle 
is meeting with more and more favor. 

There are many reasons why silage should be utilized more largely 
for the maintenance of farm animals. In almost every soil type and 
every part of the country where grass cannot be profitably produced, 
some of the crops suitable for silage can be grown quite successfully. 
If it happens that there is a shortage in the hay crop, the farmer 
need not sell off his dairy cows if provided with a silo. 

Because grass land has been so cheap and the farm land so pro- 
ductive, the farmers of different sections of the corn belt have pre- 
ferred to feed their corn in the form of grain and market it as pork 
and beef. They have feared what they have always termed an experi- 
ment. But now the days of experimentation with silage have passed 
and it is known to be one of the most economical and readily avail- 
able foods for beef and dairy animals that can be obtained in the corn 
states. 

Even in the blue grass sections of the country there are times 
during the year when something must be provided that will be suc- 
culent and palatable. The fact that silage is so succulent makes it 
very valuable as a supplementary food during the dry hot spells which 
are common in the latter part of July and August. 

Because green crops may be preserved in this way, the 
farmer can by thus handling his forage carry much more stock on 
his land than by any other method practiced today. It means greater 



PRESERVATION OF SILAGE 385 

returns from high priced land, because milk, butter, and beef can be 
produced more cheaply on silage than on any other food stuff the 
farmer grows. 

Another thing that makes silage of so much value is the fact that 
many different crops may be utilized and made much more valuable 
than in any other way. Among the crops most commonly grown for 
silage are corn, clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, sorghum, rye and oats. These 
crops when stored and preserved in an immature state, form "ensilage" 
or "silage." Corn, because of its immense production of foliage 
and ears, makes one of the most valuable crops to be utilized for 
silage purposes. Cow-peas, clover, sorghum, and the others named, 
may be utilized to fairly good advantage. During rainy spells it is 
often a good plan to put clover and alfalfa into the silo. This pro- 
vides a means of saving a crop which might otherwise be destroyed 
by rain. 

PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION. The receptacle or vat in 
which the silage is preserved must be tight enough at the base and 
around the sides to exclude all air. Within a short time after the 
maize or other green material has been packed in the silo there is a 
great accumulation of heat.* This tends to start an upward current, 
thus excluding the surface air which might enter from above. The 
mass generally reaches its maximum temperature in the course of 
only a few days. This rise of temperature is due to chemical changes 
during which oxidation takes place, producing compounds which did 
not exist in the fresh material. 

The nature of the chemical changes which actually take place is 
very complex and is supposed to be due to the action of ferments 
which are believed to be the same as the ferments which bring about 
the formation of alcohol, lactic, acetic, and other closely allied acids. 
Whether the entire degree of fermentation is brought about by the 
ferments or partly by some other agent is not definitely known. Bab- 
cock and Russell have conducted experiments at the University of 
Wisconsin to determine the causes of silage formation. These in- 
vestigators after careful research have come to the conclusion that 
silage formation is not due wholly to bacterial action. 

The information secured by the investigations of these men led 
them to believe that the respiratory processes and intra-moleeular 
activity within the plant, are the chief causes of the chemical trans- 

'A temperature of 145 degrees Fahrenheit has been reported. 



386 CORN 

formations which produce carbon dioxide and the evolution of heat 
within the ensiled mass. Direct respiration appropriates the oxygen 
confined in the air spaces between the pieces of green corn and the 
intra-niolecular respiration uses the oxygen combined in the tissues. 
Both forms of respiration go on only so long as the plant cells remain 
alive. In regard to bacteria, Babcock and Russell say: "The bacteria, 
instead of functioning as the essential cause of the changes produced 
in good silage, are on the contrary only deleterious. It is only where 
putrefaction changes occur that their influence becomes marked." 

Whatever the changes may be, the chemist will find that corn in 
the real silage form will not contain quite as much dry matter as was 
contained by the original green corn fodder. Just how this deprecia- 
tion comes about is not clear, but is supposed to be due to loss through 
volatile gases. It has been found by chemical analyses that the sugar 
which may be found in the corn fodder when put into the silo almost 
totally disappears. Later on, after the silage has gone through the cur- 
ing processes, acids are present, such as acetic and lactic. These 
changes are similar to the changes which take place in the formation of 
acetic acid in cider and of lactic acid in milk. During the development 
of these processes there is given off carbon dioxide, and water is accu- 
mulated, due to the breaking down of the carbon compounds. This 
process of combustion actually burns up some of the dry matter. 
This combustion also generates heat, causing a rise of temperature in 
the fermenting mass. 

It is also found by chemical analysis that silage contains a much 
higher amine content than the green corn fodder. Amines are nitro- 
gen compounds formed from the proteid compounds during the pro- 
cesses of fermentation and are somewhat more indigestible than the 
normal nitrogen compounds. Investigations conducted at the Penn- 
sylvania btate College showed that in some cases over one-half the 
nitrogen of silage existed in the amine form. This was between two 
and three times as much as was found in the original green fodder. 
It may be that the same change goes on with field fodder, but it must 
be in a much less degree since little or no fermentation takes place 
where the fodder is well shocked and cared for. 

In order that the above changes may go on and excessive fer- 
mentation be prevented, all air must be excluded. Fermentation will 
consume all the air found in the open spaces and in the cells of the 
undivided particles. Soon the resulting gases will begin to ascend 
and will aid in excluding any entrance of air from above. If access of 
air is allowed, "fire fanging" takes place immediately, leaving a 



MANNER OF PLANTING 387 

charred condition of the ensilage as a result. Damage to this extent 
will make it very unpalatable. 

TIME TO PLANT. Indian corn, or Zea mays, being a semi 
tropical plant, needs the entire season usually for its development. 
Some varieties are earlier than others. The calico varieties, sweet 
corn and the flinty types ripen in a much shorter season than our 
common dent varieties. They are, however, smaller yielders and 
therefore not used much for silage purposes. The dent varieties de- 
mand from 100 to 120 days of fairly good weather for maturity. In 
order to secure this amount of time the farmer must plant early 
in May. Corn frozen off in the spring is better than frozen corn in 
the fall. This is a fact worth remembering. 

MANNER OF PLANTING. In growing corn for silage on land 
foul with weeds, checking in hills will be found to be the safest meth- 
od In other words, in order to force the growth along during the 
summer to insure early maturity, the ground must be kept clean. 

On sod ground, or in fields which are comparatively clean, drill- 
ing may be practiced. With drilling there is more uniformity of size 
in the stalks, and at harvest time the machine runs more smoothly 
because the stalks are cut one at a time. 

In the corn belt the rows are usually planted 3 feet 6 inches apart. 
This is the most suitable distance for ease of cultivation with modern 
farm tools. 

THICKNESS OF PLANTING. There are Objections to Corn Be- 
ing Planted Too Thick for silage purposes. 

First, the stalks grow up slender, with elongated cells which lack 
substance. When put in the silo the whole mass shrinks badly. 
Second, the percentage of grain is seriously reduced, thus lessening 

the feeding value. 

Third the green fodder when cut will be tasteless because being 
grown w'ithout sufficient sunlight the vital activities in the leaves 
have not had a chance to perform their functions. 

Fourth, the plants will not withstand heavy winds, the stems being 
slender and weak. 

When Corn is Planted Too Far Apart. 

First, the stalks grow up rank, the cell walls are heavy, and there 
is too much deposition of indigestible crude fiber. 

Second, there is a tendency toward late maturity because of the 
overabundance of plant food furnished each stalk. 

Third, the yield may be materially reduced. 



388 CORN 

The Thickness of Planting Will Depend Upon, 

First, the fertility of the land. 

Second, the amount of rainfall in the region. 

Third, the length of the growing season. Where the growing sea- 
son is short, thickly planted corn will mature earlier. 

Fourth, the variety. A rank growing variety which attains con- 
siderable height should be planted just a little thinner than a variety 
with short stalks, because the tall growth shades the lower leaves 
when drilled thickly. 

As a rule, one stalk every 9 to 16 inches will produce the best corn 
for silage purposes. When checking, 3 stalks on land of medium 
fertility and 4 on richer land will be found thick enough when the 
hills are 3 feet 6 inches apart, 

VARIETIES TO PLANT. When Selecting a Variety of Corn to 
Plant for Silage, Consider That, 

First, there must be a large yield of foliage which will be succu- 
lent and palatable. 

Second, there should be enough matured ears to raise the percent- 
age of digestible nutrients in the silage. 

Third, the variety must mature early in order to be ready for cut- 
ting before frost and also to have a large content of dry matter. 

Corn harvested on the Experiment grounds of the Iowa State Col- 
lege on September 27th, immature and slightly dented, mature and 
well dented, showed a difference in yield (dry weights) per acre of 56 
and 82 bushels of grain respectively, with about equal amounts of 
stover. This shows the importance of planting varieties that will 
mature. 

As an average of several cultural trials, Professor Jordan of the 
Maine Station found a greater amount of green fodder and total 
amount of dry matter in large southern varieties than in the adapted 
northern varieties. The difference, however, was but 175 pounds per 
acre. Considering that an additional 6 1-4 tons more green fodder was 
handled in case of southern varieties, and that the former was of a 
more watery nature and more susceptible to fermentation in silo, the 
northern variety was the more profitable. Other northern Stations 
have come to the same conclusion. 
Varieties Recommended. 

"Modern Silage Methods", published by the Silver Manufacturing 
Company, of Salem, Ohio, gives the following varieties for different 
sections of the country. "The best varieties for the New England 
States are the Sanford and Flint corn; for the Middle States, Learn- 



TIME OF HARVESTING 



389 



ing, White and Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the 
Learning, Sanford, Flint and White Dent are best adapted. In the 
south, the Southern Horse Tooth, Mosby Prolific, and other large 
dent corns are preferred." 

For Canada, Rennie suggests for Northern Ontario, King Phillip's 
North Dakota and Compton's Early Flint varieties; for Central On- 
tario, the larger and heavier varieties, as Mammoth, Cuban, and Wis- 
consin Earliest White Dents. A strain of Leaming corn is also being 
grown considerably for silage purposes in southern and central 
Canada. 

King, of Wisconsin, recommends for northern United States the 
earliest maturing dent varieties and the largest flint varieties. The 
flint varieties will stand thicker planting than the dent varieties. He 
further states that those varieties that will mature 3 to 5 stalks 
per hill 3^ feet apart will produce more fodder and of better quality 
than when planted thinner. 

*The best variety of corn to plant is that which will mature and 
yield the largest amount of grain to the acre, since the grain is the 
most valuable part of the corn plant. The variety commonly grown 
in any particular locality for grain will also be the most satisfactory 
to grow for silage. As will be seen from the table below, taken from 
the First Annual Report of the Pennsylvania State College, 63 per 
cent of the digestible food materials present in the corn plant are 
found in the ears and 37 per cent in the stover. 

YIELD OF DIGESTIBLE MATTER IN CORN. 





Yield per Acre 


CONSTITUENT 


Ears 
Pounds 


Stover 
Pounds 


Total Crop 
Pounds 


Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 


244 

2,301 

125 


83 
1,473 

22 


317 ■ 
3,774 
147 


Total 


2,670 


1,578 


4,248 



THE TIME OF HARVESTING. As maturity advances the con- 
tent of water is lessened, which, of course, corresponds to an mcrease 
of dry matter. The nitrogenous substances and the oil decrease in 
comparative percentage to the rapid increase in the content of starches 
and sugars. 

The following table from Professor Ladd of the Geneva Station, 
New York, substantiates the above statement: 



•Farmer's Bulletin No. 556, United States Department of Agriculture. 



390 



CORN 



Yields per Acre 



Tasseled 
July 30 



Silked 
Aug. 9 



Milk 
Aug. 21 



Glazed 
Sept. 7 



Ripe 
Sept. 23 



Pounds I Pounds | Pounds | Pounds | Pounds 



Gross weight . . .• 

Water in crop 

Dry matter 

Ash 

Crude Protein 

Nitrogen-Free Extract 
(Sugar, Starch) ... 

Crude Fat 

Crude Fiber 



18,045 
16.426 
1,619 
138.9 
239.8 

239.8 

72.2 

514.2 



25,745 
22,666 
3.708 
201.3 
436.8 

436.8 
167.8 
872.9 



32.600 
27.957 
4,642 
232.2 

478.7 

378.7 

228.9 

1.262.0 



32,295 
25,993 
7,202 
302.5 
643.9 

643.9 
260 
2,755.9 



28,460 
20,542 
7,818 
364.2 
677.8 

677.8 

314.3 

1,734.0 



The actual amount of all the constituents increases as the ripening 
process goes on. The deposition of the protein and oil seems to be 
accomplished early in the season. The stuffing of the cells with starch 
is always later. Hence what is termed immature starchy corn is not 
due to the over supply of starch, but to the lack of it. In other words, 
the cells are large and open, giving the shelled grain very little weight. 
Cattle feeders complain that steers do not fatten well on this immature 
corn. Their observations are practical. Fat forming components are 
not present in sufficient quantities. The digestion and assimilation 
of more material is required to obtain an equivalent amount of nutri- 
ment. 

Increase in Food Ingredients. 

Below are presented two tables, one introductory to the other, 
which show the relative increase of the constituents in the maturing 
corn plant: 

INCREASE IN FOOD INGREDIENTS FROM TASSELING TO MATURITY 







Stage 01 


Maturity 


Experiment Station 


Variety 


First Cutting 


1 Last Cutting 


1. Cornell, N. Y., 


Pride of the North, 


Bloom, 


Mature 


2. Geneva, N. Y., 


King Phillip, 


Tasseled, 


Mature 


3. Cornell, N. Y., 


Pride of the North, 


Bloom, 


Nearly Mature 


4. New Hampshire, 


Average of 4 varieties. 


Tasseled, 


Glazed 


5. Pennsylvania, 


Average of 10 varieties. 


Tasseled, 


Mature 


6. Vermont, 


Average of 2 varieties. 


Tasseled, 


Glazed 


7. Vermont, 


Average of 2 varieties. 


Bloom. 


Glazed 



GAIN IN PER CENT BETWEEN FIRST AND LAST CUTTING. 

Dry Matter Crude Protein Crude Fat Carbohydrates 

1 156 80 129 169 

2 217 134 374 300 

3 289 183 335 662 

4 112 50 84 130 

5 155 

6 120 50 

7 204 81 

Averages 193 98 230 26s 



MANNER OF GROWING FOR SILAGE 391 

There is a decided increase in the amount of dry matter as ma- 
turity advances. Upon this principle the time of cutting should de- 
pend. The further reason for postponing cutting is that, in early 
stages, the sugar is most abundant. Later th-e sugars are made over 
into starches as the grain develops and matures. When the corn is cut 
green the accompanying bacterial fermentation falls most heavily on 
the sugars and the loss is quite decided. It is, therefore, advisable 
to put ofif cutting until grain is well formed and sugars changed to 
starch. 

Professor King, of Wisconsin, states that corn should be well ma- 
tured and well eared and contain not less than 30 to 35 per cent of 
dry matter. If corn contains but 20 per cent of dry matter, there will 
be much greater loss either as silage or as fodder, due to the greater 
fermentation. Large amounts of water in silage are more favorable 
to growth of bacteria than the concentrated juices found in the later 
stages of the corn plant. 

While corn should not be cut too early, neither should the cutting 
be delayed too long. It should be cut somewhat earlier for silage than 
for fodder to be left in the field. The corn for silage should be cut 
when the grain is past the dough stage, well, dented, and beginning to 
glaze. The foliage at this time will be green and succulent — not 
coarse and pithy — and will still retain a superabundance of watery 
materials to be handled. 

FILLING THE SILO. 

In the consideration of silage, nothing is more important than the 
question of proper filling of the silo. A large percentage of the losses 
which have been found in the wide range of experience with silos of 
all kinds has been due to improper filling. The recommendations of 
the United States Department of Agriculture in Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 556 are given as follows :* 

"Length of Cut. The usual length of cutting varies from one-half 
to one inch. The latter is considered a little too long, since pieces of 
this length will neither pack so closely in the silo nor be so com- 
pletely consumed when fed as will the shorter lengths. On the other 
hand, the longer the pieces the more rapidly can the corn be run 
through the cutter. 

"Packing the Silage. Ordinarily the blower or carrier empties the 
cut corn into the top of the silo and there are one or more men in the 

•By Professor T. E. Woodward. 



392 CORN 

silo to distribute and tramp the material. Unless there is some one to 
do this the cut material will be thrown too much in one place and the 
leaves, stalks and grain will not be uniformly distributed throughout 
the silo. The sides should be kept higher than the center and much of 
the tramping done close to the wall. 

"Various contrivances have been used for distributing the silage. 
The one most to be recommended for this purpose, however, is a 
metal pipe similar to the one in which the cut corn is elevated, but put 
together loosely in sections. The corn from the blower passes down 
this pipe into the silo, and being loosely put together it can be swung 
so that the material can be placed anywhere in the silo. With this 
contrivance no work with a fork is necessary and one man can do the 
work of two or three and do it easier. There is very little loose ma- 
terial flying about in the silo and the work is much cleaner. Another 
advantage is a lessening of the danger of being struck by some foreign 
object which has passed up the blower pipe. Heavy knives of the 
cutter have been known to pass through the blower and into the silo. 
As has been mentioned, this pipe is put together in sections, so that 
as the silage rises in the silo the sections can be readily detached as 
required, 

"Adding Water. In case the material has become too dry before 
it is put into the silo, water should be added to supply the deficiency 
of moisture and so make the silage pack better. Unless it is well 
packed the silage will 'firefang 'or deteriorate through the growth of 
mold. Enough water should be added to restore the moisture content 
of the corn to what it would be if cut at the proper stage. The water 
may be added by running directly into the silo by means of a hose or 
by running through the blower. It is claimed that by running it into 
the blower the water is more thoroughly mixed with the cut corn. 

"It seems to be good practice, no matter what the condition of the 
corn, to thoroughly wet down the material at the top of the silo when 
through filling. This will help to pack the top layer and lessen the 
amount of spoiled silage on top. 

"Covering the Silage. Several years ago it was a common practice 
to cover the silage with some material, such as dirt or cut straw, in 
order to prevent the top layer from spoiling. At present when any 
provision at all is made for this purpose it consists usually in merely 



CORN FODDER FOR SILAGE 393 

running in on top corn stalks from which the ears have been removed. 
By this method some of the corn grain is saved. The heavy green 
corn stalks pack much better than straw does and so exclude the air 
more effectually. The top is thoroughly tramped and then wet down. 
Sometimes oats are sown on the top before wetting. The heat gen- 
erated by the fermenting mass will cause the oats to sprout quickly 
and form a dense sod which serves to shut off the air from the silage 
beneath, and in consequence only a very shallow layer spoils. 

"Cutting Corn Fodder for Silage. A practice used by some at the 
present time and one to be well recommended, is that of cutting up 
shock fodder and putting it into the silo after the silo has been emptied. 
Very often the feeder finds himself short of the amount of silage that 
he needs and by cutting up his corn fodder he is provided with a good 
quality of silage to carry him through. The main requirement in 
cutting up fodder to be put into the silo is to add an abundance of 
water. This practice results in a considerable saving of food material 
and adds greatly to the digestibility of the fodder. 

"Harvesting the Corn. The corn is cut for the silo either by hand 
or by machine. Hand cutting is practiced on farms where the amount 
of corn to be harvested is so small as to make the expense of purchas- 
ing a corn harvester too great to justify its use. Hand cutting is also 
resorted to through necessity when the corn is down or lodged in such 
a manner as to prevent the use of the machine. This method of cut- 
ting, however, is slow and laborious and there are probably few 
localities now where the purchase of a harvester would not be a profit- 
able investment. 

"In using the harvester it will be found a great advantage to make 
the bundles rather small. This will take more Ume, but the extra 
expense will be more than offset by the ease in handling the bundles 
and in feeding them into the silage cutter. The harvester should not 
get so far ahead of the haulers that the corn will dry out to any con- 
siderable extent." 

SIZE OF SILOS. 

Corn silage weighs on an average about 40 pounds per cubic foot. 
Thus a silo with a depth of 30 feet, having a diameter of 16 feet, will 
hold around 119 tons. 



394 CORN 

The following table gives the capacity of different sized silos; 

CAPACITY OF ROUND SILOS 

APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS, FOR WELL- 
MATURED CORN SILAGE, IN TONS.* 



Depth of 
Silo, Feet 


INSIDE DIAMETER OF SILO, FEET. 


1 10 


12 1 14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 


26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
51 


38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 


51 
55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 


59 

63 

67 

72 

76 

81 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 


67 

72 

77 

82 

87 

90 

97 

103 

108 

114 

119 

125 

131 


85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 


105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 


115 
123 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 


127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
174 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
258 


138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
236 
247 
258 
271 


151 
161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
265 
269 
282 
295 


163 
175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
292 
305 
320 


177 
189 
202 
216 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
oOO 
315 
330 
846 



AMOUNT OF SILAGE NEEDED 

With good corn from 12 to 15 tons of silage may be secured per 
acre. 35 to 40 pounds of silage per day is sufficient when feeding 
cows. 

The following table will be of interest, showing the dimensions 
of silo, capacity in tons, acres to fill, and the number of cows it will 
keep 6 months: 



Dimensions 


Capacity in Tons 


Acres to Fill, IS Tons 
to Acre 


Cows it Will Keep 6 

Months, 40 tbs. feed 

per day 


10x20 


28 


3 


8 


12x20 


30 


3 


11 


12x24 


49 


3 2-5 


13 


12x28 


60 


4 


15 


14x22 


61 


4 1-2 


17 


14x24 


67 


4 2-3 


19 


14x28 


83 


5 2-3 


22 


14x30 


93 


6 


23 


16x24 


87 


6 2-5 


24 


16x26 


97 


7 


26 


16x30 


119 


8 


30 


18x30 


151 


10 1-5 


37 


18x36 


189 


12 1-3 


45 



"Modern Silo Methods. 



COST OF SILAGE 



395 



COST OF SILAGE.* As with the cost of filling the silo, no 
definite figure can be set as to the cost of silage. This will depend 
upon the yield per acre, the cost of growing an acre, and the cost of 
filling. Several years ago the cost was variously estimated at from 
$1.00 to $1.50 per ton. At present this is much too low. The before- 
mentioned data collected by the Dairy Division on the filling of 87 
silos in various parts of the country show the cost of growing the 
silage crop to average $1.58 per ton. This added to the 87 cents, which 
represents the cost of filling, makes the total cost of the silage $2.45 
per ton. The cost of the silage for the individual farms varied from 
$1.10 to $5.42 per ton. In general, it may be stated that $1.50 to $3.50 
per ton represents the limits between which most of the silage is 
produced. 




FILLING SILO AT THE IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION. 



F. D. Coburn of Kansas estimates the cost per ton of filling the 
silo as follows : 

For cutting and putting in silo, per ton 58.59 cents 

For interest and taxes on silo investment, per ton 10.97 " 

For insurance and maintenance, per ton 3.66 " 

Total 73-22 

The following table taken from Farmers' Bulletin No. 292 shows 
the cost of a ton of silage as estimated on 31 farms: 

•Farmer's Bulletin No. 556. 



396 



CORN 
COST PER TON OF PUTTING UP SILAGE. 



Labor 


Team 


Twine 


Fuel 


Engine 


Total 


$0.21 


$0.12 


$0.03 


$0.02 


$0.08 


$0.46 


.23 


.07 


.03 


.03 


.12 


.48 


.22 


.12 


.05 


.03 


.07 


.49 


.21 


.13 


.05 


.04 


.08 


.51 


.22 


.13 


.03 


.03 


.10 


.51 


.25 


.12 


.03 


.02 


.09 


.51 


.20 


.17 


.03 


.05 


.08 


.53 


.23 


.16 


.05 


.02 


.09 


.55 


.25 


.14 


.03 


.02 


.12 


.56 


.29 


.13 


.02 


.02 


.10 


.56 


.26 


.15 


.03 


.03 


.09 


.56 


.24 


.14 


.04 


.04 


.13 


.59 


.27 


.18 


.05 


.03 


.07 


.60 


.28 


.16 


.05 


.03 


.08 


.60 


.28 


.14 


.04 


.06 


.10 


.62 


.34 


.16 


.00 


.05 


.08 


.63 


.28 


.17 


.07 


.03 


.09 


.64 


.36 


.13 


.04 


.03 


.11 


.67 


.33 


.14 


.04 


.07 


.09 


.67 


.25 


.20 


.05 


.03 


.15 


.68 


.33 


.16 


.04 


.03 


.14 


.70 


.35 


.18 


.03 


.03 


.11 


.70 


.33 


.16 


.05 


.03 


.14 


.71 


.28 


.20 


.04 


.03 


.17 


.72 


.44 


.16 


.00 


.02 


.13 


.75 


.36 


.20 


.07 


.03 


.11 


.77 


.34 


.22 


.05 


.04 


.13 


.78 


.42 


.18 


.04 


.06 


.10 


.80 


.38 


.18 


.06 


.05 


.15 


.82 


.40 


.21 


.05 


.03 


.15 


.84 


.45 


.20 


.04 


.05 


.12 


.86 



LOSSES OF SILAGE IN THE SILO. The losses in the silo are 
due to fermentation — the action of bacteria on the proteids and carbo- 
hydrates. The effect is to reduce the more valuable carbohydrates, as 
starches and sugars, and to change a part of the albuminoid nitrogen 
into the amide form, which is indigestible. 

Accompanying this reduction and changing, is the formation of 
acids, causing a sourness. The greener and more watery the silage 
is, the greater the percentage of loss, both in dry matter and in feed- 
ing value. 

The following table, taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" 
shows the changing of the several constituents in the green fodder and 
silage : 



VALUE OF SILAGE 



397 



WATER FREE SI^BSTANCE OF GREEN CORN AND THE SILAGE MADE 

THEREFROM. 





Per cent 1881 


Per cent 1882 


Per cent 1883 


Av. Per cent 


Constituents 


Green 
Corn 


Silage 


^C^o^^n" 1 Silage 


Green 
Corn 


Silage 


g^n Silage 


Ash, pure 


50 

6.5 

24.2 

62.3 

L9 


5.5 6.1 1 *.u 1 3.3 


3.7 

7.3 

33.8 

52.6 

2.8 


4.0 

7.26 
29.56 
57.0 

2.1 


4.1 


Nitrogen x 6.25 

Crude Fiber 

Other Carbohydrates 
Ether Extract 


7.2 
27.4 
57.0 

2.9 


8.0 
35.2 
51.0 

2.0 


8.9 
35.8 
49.2 

2.3 


7.3 
29.3 
57.7 

2.4 


7.8 
32.33 
52.93 

2.66 



The following table, also taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding' 
shows relative losses of dry matter in silage and corn fodder : 



Station 



Vermont Report 1889 

Vermont Report 1891 

Vermont Report 1892 

Vermont Report 1894 

New Jersey Bulletin 19 

Pennsylvania Report 1889.... 
Wisconsin Report 1891 (Aver- 
age Four Years) 

Average 



Corn Silage 



iin Foddei' 



Dry Matter 
Per cent 



Protein 
Per cent 



Dry Matter 
Per cent 



14.7 




20.0 


13.0 


18.0 


11.0 


20.0 


12.0 


18.0 




10.0 


26.5 


15.6 


16.8 


16.61 


15.86 



13.6* 

19.0 

18.0 

20.0 

17.3 

21.0 

23.8 
18.96 



Protein 
Per cent_ 

17.0 

9.0 

12.0 

138 

24.3 
15.22 



It will be noted from the above table that the losses are about 
equal in the silage and corn fodder. 

The silage loss includes that waste found in the top layer. This 
loss may be largely prevented by spreading green grass, wet chaflf, or 
other covering over the top of the silage. Professor King says on this 
point, that after four years' experience, he is convinced that the total 
losses minus those found on the top and bottom may not exceed lo 
per cent. 

In the above case the fodder was analyzed in early winter. The 
loss in the fodder would increase, the longer it stood and the wetter 
and more unfavorable weather to which it was exposed. On the other 
hand, the maximum loss of silage is reached within a short time after 
siloing. 

VALUE OF SILAGE. In Milk Production. Silage is not a con- 
centrated food stufif. Its value lies in being a roughage in supplying 
succulence. The dairy districts have found silage indispensable for 
winter feed. The Ohio Station conducted an experiment to determine 
the relative value of beets and silage in milk production. This test 
was carried on for four years and showed a gain in milk production 
of 6 per cent per lOO pounds of dry matter fed, in favor of the silage 
rations. Pennsylvania found a similar gain of 5 per cent. The pro- 

*Large shocks. 15.1 per cent for small shocks. 



398 



CORN 



ficiency of the Jersey over the other herds at the St. Louis test speaks 
well for silage. Such constancy of milk flow was never before known. 

In Beef Production, 

In beef production the Ottawa Experiment Station found that in 
fattening steers a gain of 1.33 pounds per day was obtained from the 
rations of silage and straw, against a daily gain of 1.05 pounds on 
roots and hay. The former was also cheaper. The Illinois Station 
came to the conclusion in feeding calves intended for beef production, 
that for equal areas fed, silage produced more rapid and economic 
gains and left the animals in better thrift in the spring, than did 
shocked corn. Silage when fed to fattening steers is thoroughly di- 
gested. Shoats following animals thus fed gain but very little. In 
the case of an epidemic of cholera silage is a valuable cattle feed. 

COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF CORN SILAGE. 

Corn as used for silage purposes, necessarily contains a high per- 
centage of water. A compilation of the analyses of the American feed- 
ing stuffs, made by the various experiment station chemists, as given 
in Bulletin No. 11 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, gives the 
analyses of silage corn as follows : 

Silage Corn. 



Kind of Corn 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
Free Extract 


Fat 


Dent 


78.99 

79.76 
79.08 


1.2 

1.05 

1.26 


1.73 
1.96 
1.86 


5.59 
4.32 
4.42 


11.98 
21.26 
12.92 


51 


Flint 


65 


Sweet 


.46 



From this table we see that the flint corn is highest in protein and 
fat and that sweet corn is slightly better than the dent corn. These 
relations remain the same among the flint, sweet and dent corns, when 
the analysis is made of water-free substances, as shown in the follow- 
ing table : 

Water-Free Silage Corn. 



Kind of Corn 


Ash 


Protein Fiber | pf^eflxTact 


Fat 


Dent 


5.7 
5.2 
6.0 


8.3 
9.7 
8.9 


26.3 
21.3 
21.2 


57.1 
60.6 
61.7 


2.6 


Flint 


3.2 


Sweet 


2.2 







Silage Compared with Hay. Jordan, in charge of the Maine Sta- 
tion, compared silage made from the various kinds of corn with good 
hay made mainly from timothy, for milk production. Four cows were 
used in carrying out the experiment. They were first fed hay, then 
hay and silage and then hay again. An equal amount of concentrates 



FEEDING SILAGE TO MILCH COWS 399 

was given each cow during the experiment. The following interesting 

results were secured : 

Periods. Milk. 

On hay and grain 2-17 to 3-9 21.7 lbs. 

On hay, silage and grain 3-10 to 5-1 1 22.5 lbs. 

On hay and grain 5-12 to 5-25 19.6 lbs. 

It will be noted from the above that there was a decided increase 
when the cows were changed from hay to hay and silage, and a no- 
ticeable decrease when they were shifted back to the old ration of hay. 

The ultimate efifect of the two feeds is shown in the following table. 
Here Mr. Jordan groups the milk yields of the four cows in 14-day 
periods just preceding or following a change in the roughage fed. 
Total Yield of Milk, Four Cows, for 14 days. 

On hay 1,212 pounds 

Changed to silage and hay 1.297 " 

An increase of 85 pounds or about 7 per cent. 

On silage and hay 1,200 pounds 

Changed to hay 1,098 " 

A decrease of 102 pounds is shown, or about 8 per cent. 
It will be noted from the above that when the cows w^ere changed 
from hay to silage and hay there was a decided change or increase, 
amounting to 7 per cent, and when the cows were again shifted 
to hay from silage and hay there was a decided loss in flow of 8 
per cent. In summing up the above results, Jordan reaches this con- 
clusion : "In the experiment the addition of silage to the ration re- 
sulted in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, which was 
not caused by an increase in the digestibility of food material eaten, 
but which must have been due either to the superior value of the 
nutrients of the silage over those of the hay, or to the general physio- 
logical effect of feeding a greater variety of foods. In other words 
8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds 
of hay (mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible material being 
the same in the two cases. 

"Assuming the digestible matter of hay and silage to be of equal 
value, pound for pound, when hay is worth $10 per ton silage of the 
kind used in the experiment would be worth $2.25 per ton. But this 
silage contained more water than the average. Had it been of average 
quality, then the ton value reckoned on the above basis would be 
$2.62. But in this case we should give the silage the credit of the 
increased milk production, which seems to have been at the rate of 
85 pounds of milk to each ton of silage." 



400 



CORN 



Value of Silage versus Fodder Corn. Vorhees and Lane of the 
New Jersey Station,* conducted an experiment to find the compara- 
tive values of silage versus fodder corn. 

For the use of the experiment a 15-acre field planted to corn, with 
rows 3 feet 6 inches and stalks 8 inches apart in the row, was taken. 
The crop was cared for during the first week of September, when the 
ears were nicely glazed over. Twelve acres of the field were put in 
the silo and three acres were harvested as fodder corn and shocked in 
the usual manner. Two lots of cows consisting of 4 in each were 
used in the experiment, one being fed corn fodder and the other silage, 
the feeds being changed at the end of the first period so as to have a 
check upon the experiment. The rations fed were so mixed that the 
silage or fodder corn furnished at least one-half the total dry matter 
and two-thirds the digestible carbohydrates. The cattle seemed to 
relish the silage better than the corn fodder, as a portion of the corn 
fodder was left uneaten. There seemed to be a gain with both lots 
of cows. 

The following data gives the production of milk and fat : 





Number 

of 

Days 


Total 

Yield 

of Milk 

Pounds 


Average 

Yield 
per Day 
per Cow 
Pounds 


Average 

Per cent 

of Fat 


Total 
Yield of 
. Fat 

Pounds 


Average 
Fat per 
Day per 
Cow 
Pounds 


Silage 


24 1 
24 ' 

] 


2.276.2 

2,017.9 

258.3 

12.8 


23.7 
21.0 

2.7 


3.78 
3.86 
0.08 


861b 

78.02 

8.13 

10.4 


b^7 


Dry fodder ration 
Gain for silage. . . 
Per cent of in- 
crease 


.813 
—08 



By noting the above table we see that the silage ration produced 
12.6 per cent more milk and about 10.3 per cent more of the fat than 
the fodder corn. 

Large yields and economy in production and storage are among 
the highest values of silage. Beets also supply succulence. Careful 
tests at the stations of Ohio, Maine, Pennsylvania and Ontario have 
been made with rutabagas, mangels, turnips, and sugar beets. They 
were found to furnish but 35 to 60 per cent as much dry matter per 
acre as silage. The Pennsylvania Station found that $56.07 had to 
be expended to grow an acre of roots, while $21.12 would pay for the 
same area in corn and put it in the silo. The United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture estimates the cost of the care of an acre of corn 
at $11.07, counting all details. 

♦Bulletin 122, New Jersey. 



WHY A SILO? 401 

Some Points in Favor of Silage.* Professor T. E. Woodward of 
the I'nited States Department of Agriculture gives the following ad- 
vantages for silage : 

"1. More feed can be stored in a given space in the form of silage 
than in the form of fodder or hay. 

"2. There is a smaller loss of food material when a crop is made 
into silage than when cured as fodder or hay. 

"3. Corn silage is a more eflficient feed than corn fodder. 

"4. An acre of corn can be placed in the silo at less cost than the 
same area can be husked and shredded. 

"5. Crops can be put in the silo during weather that could not l)e 
utilized in making hay or curing fodder. 

"6. More stock can be kept on a given area of land when silage is 
the basis of the ration. 

"7. There is less waste in feeding silage than in feeding fodder. 
Good silage properly fed is all consumed. 

"8. Silage is very palatable. 

"9. Silage, like other succulent feeds, has a beneficial efifect upon 
the digestive organs. 

"10. Silage is the cheapest and best form in which a succulent feed 
can be provided for winter use. 

"11. Silage can be used for supplementing pastures more econom- 
ically than can soiling crops, because it requires less labor, and silage 
is more palatable. 

"12. Converting the corn crop into silage clears the land and 
leaves it ready for another crop." 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Corn as a Silage Crop, 

Maine Bulletin No. ii. 
Composition and Digestibility of Corn Silage, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 43. 
When to Cut Corn for Ensilage, 

New Hampshire Bulletin No. 3. 
Corn Ensilage for Steers, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 136. 
Farmer's Bulletin No. 556. 



•Farmer's Bulletin No. 556. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



JUDGING CORN 



WHY JUDGE CORN? The highest and only purpose of the 
judge is to give first ranking to that sample which in his estimation 
will, if planted the next spring, produce more corn of better quality 
than any other sample on exhibition. Furthermore, it should show 
breeding, that its good qualities may be more surely perpetuated. A 
true and thorough understanding of the ear of corn can only be ascer- 
tained by practice in judging. The judge cannot do his duty until he 
knows what to look for. 

The criticism at times has been very legitimately made, that in corn 
shows the winning samples had been sometimes chosen too much 
because of attractive appearance and fancy points, the essential points 
being too often lost sight of. That is, over-valuation was laid on 
filling of tips and butts, while size of ear, depth of kernel and ger- 
minating power were ignored. The Agricultural Colleges have taken 
up the task of training men to be proficient in placing awards. Often 
these men have become somewhat stilted and impractical, but their 
influence has aroused an enthusiasm in corn growing all through the 
corn belt. 

For years, intelligent and progressive farmers selected their seed 
corn according to ideas of their own. Corn breeders who established 
the standard varieties of the present time, laid stress on certain points. 
They knew a good ear of corn, but because of few occasions (corn 
shows, etc.) for the expression of this knowledge it was not widely 
disseminated. 

INTRODUCTION OF THE CORN SCORE CARD. As corn 
growing and breeding became of more recognized importance and the 
essential characteristics more thoroughly understood by interested 
persons, the formulation of a definite scale of points became neces- 
sary. *"In 1886, at the great corn exhibit at the Exposition at Chi- 
cago, the five expert judges worked some days in preparing a scale 

♦Indian Corn Culture, Plumb, Page 56. 



CORN JUDGING CLASS 



403 




O 
.J 

o 
o 

H 
E-i 
<! 
H 
CO 

O 
W 

<3 

o 

o 

g 
3 

Q 

P 

1-5 

H 
P 
t3 

i-' 

xn 

W 

TO 

Pi 
o 

o 



404 CORN 

of points to guide them in their decisions." A score card which has 
been used for years was arranged for the Illinois Fair at Peoria in 
1891 by Orange Judd (now deceased), the founder of the Orange 
Judd Farmer and other agricultural papers. Later the Illinois Corn 
Growers' Association modified the original form by aid of the agron- 
omists at the University of Illinois. This institution has been in the 
vanguard in adopting changes for the better in the old score card. The 
corn growers of Missouri have a slightly different scale of points, as 
do those of Nebraska also. Some very radical changes have been 
made in the last few years by the Iowa State College, because of the 
failure of the old score card to meet the need of simplicity and definite- 
ness in short course and institute work. 

Definition of the Score Card. After having been changed in many 
details, and when only essential things have come to be considered, it 
may be said that the corn score card is an outlined statement and 
explanation of the points to be observed in the elimination of unde- 
sirable ears or samples and of recognizing and selecting those of 
desirable characters. 

The Purposes of the Score Card are: 

(i) To present to the mind of the student, judge and grower the 
essential points to be considered in examining an ear or sample of 
corn. 

(2) To impress the relative value of these points, placing first 
those of the greatest importance. 

(3) To explain and illustrate as much as possible just what these 
points mean. 

(4) To go even further and point out the reason why these points 
mean so much. 

SCORE CARD USED BY THE FARM CROPS DEPARTMENT 
OF THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE. 

Students' Score Card. 

Name of Scorer No Date 

Sample No Table No Variety 

L General Appearance, (Productiveness) 20 

1. Size and shape of ear, 12 

2. Constitution, 4 

3. Filling of butts, 3 

4. Filling of tips, I 



FULL VS. POINTED TIPS 



405 




SPACE AT COB AND SHRUNKEN TIPS 

The ear on the left shows excessive spacing at the cob. The Iternels from 
it are very pointed and weak at the tip. The ear on the right is full at 
the cob. Its kernels are plump at the tip. 



(14) 



406 



CORN 



II. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics, 20 

1. Shape of ear, 

2. Shape of kernel, 

3. Purity of color of cob, 

4. Uniformity in size and shape of kernels, 

5. Purity of color of grain, 

6. Straightness of rows, 

7. Arrangement of rows, 

8. Form and filling of tips 

9. Form and filling of butts. 



III. Maturity and Market Condition, 

1. Sappiness. 

2. Chaffiness, 

3. Starchiness, 

4. Adherence of tip cap to cob, 

5. Adherence of chaff to tip cap, 

6. Plumpness of tips of kernels, 

7. Depth of kernels, 

8. Size of ear, 

9. Size of cob, 

IV. Vitality. — Germinating Power, 

1. Color of embryo, 

2. Condition of embryo, 

3. Adherence of tip cap to cob, 

4. Blistering of kernel, 

5. Size of germ, 

6. Plumpness of tips of kernels, 

7. Adherence of chaff to tip cap, 

8. Condition of cob, 

9. Starchiness, 

10. Chafifiness, 

11. Sappiness, 

V. Shelling Percentage, 

I. Depth of kernel. 



25 



25 



10 



Size and density of cob. 
Filling of butts and tips, 
Space at cob, 
Furrows between rows, 



Total, 



100 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— TRUENESS TO TYPE 407 

NOTES. 

1. An ear need not be deficient in all points mentioned under the respective headings to score 

zero in that particular heading. 

2. A score of zero in any one of the first four main headings disqualifies the ear. 

3. An ear or sample scoring below seventy-five (75) docs not deserve a place. 



EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGING 

I. GENERAL APPEARANCE. (PRODUCTIVENESS.) 

1. Size and Shape of Ear. With the proportion of corn to 
cob being the same, the larger the ear, the larger the yield, 
providing the same number of ears are grown on an acre. 
The ability to mature limits the size. Well shaped ears 
show strength, vigor, breediness. 

2. Constitution. As shown by an ear of desirable size, well 
proportioned, strong, full in the middle. This does not 
mean vitality. 

3. Form and Filling of Butts. Properly filled butts indicate 
perfect pollination, strong shanks and power to withstand 

the winds. A well filled butt is more important than a well 
filled tip. 

4. Form and Filling of Tips. Pilling of tips, if the depth of 
grain is maintained, produces higher yields. 

II. TRUENESS TO TYPE OR BREED CHARACTERISTICS. 

1. Shape of Ear. This should conform to the variety type. 
It should be full in the central portion and hold its size 
well out to the tip. In general, circumference should be 
about three-fourths of the length. 

2. Shape of Kernel. The shape of the kernel should conform 
to the variety type. The tip should be full, since such a 
condition indicates strength, high proportion of corn to 
cob, and high feeding value. The edges should touch well 
up to the crown, which necessitates a more or less wedge- 
shaped kernel. A rounding crown gives a smooth appear- 
ance and shows lack of breeding in dent corn. 

3. Purity of Color of Cob. Variation of color, a white cob 
in yellow corn or a red cob in white corn, indicates im- 
purity and should disqualify the ear, unless such be a 
variety type. 



408 CORN 

4. Uniformity in Size and Shape of Kernels. The size and 
shape of all kernels of each ear and of all kernels on all 
the ears in a sample should conform to the variety type 
and be uniform throughout the sample. This will insure 
more even stand in planting. 

5. Purity of Color of Grain. In color, the kernels should be 
free from mixture and also true to the variety which they 
represent. 

6. Straightness of Rows. The rows of kernels should run 
straight from butt to tip ; any twisting of the rows around 
the ear is objectionable. 

7. Arrangement of Rows. This depends upon the variety. 
For example, Reid's Yellow Dent is distinctly paired, 
while Golden Eagle is arranged in single rows. 

8. Form and Filling of Tips. A tip well filled with uniforn: 
kernels indicates proper development of the ear and a 
relatively high proportion of corn to cob. It should con- 
form to the variety. The kernels should keep their shape 
and size well out toward the tip of the ear. This is strong 
evidence of good breeding. 

9. Form and Filling of Butts. A butt well filled with uni- 
form kernels indicates more complete development of the 
ear. Variety type should be considered. 




TYPES OF KERNELS 



MATURITY AND MARKET CONDITION 409 

III. MATURITY AND MARKET CONDITION. 

1. Sappiness. Containing a high percentage of moisture. 
The ear is heavy and can usually be twisted out of shape. 
The kernels generally presenting a glossy, waxy appear- 
ance. 

2. Chaffiness. When the hand is passed roughly over the 
ear, a rattling sound indicates chaffiness. The kernels 
usually have an extremely pinched dent and show imma- 
turity. 

3. Starchiness. Generally a large amount of white starch 
indicates immaturity. This may be present on the back 
or on the front of the kernel, or on both. 

4. Adherence of Tip Cap to Cob. The adherence of the tip 
cap to cob in shelling, leaving the black tip of the germ 
exposed, indicates immaturity. 

5. Adherence of Chaff to Tip Cap. If the chafif adheres to 
the tip cap in shelling, it indicates more or less immatur- 
ity. The shrinking kernel has drawn the chafif with it in 
the process of drying. 

6. Plumpness of Tips of Kernels. Shrunken tips indicate 
immaturity; that is, they were full of moisture when 
stored. They also indicate lack of vigor, low proportion 
of corn to cob and low feeding value. 

7. Depth of Kernel. As a general rule, deep kernels require, 
more time in which to mature than do shallow kernels. 
The depths will vary with the variety type, climatic and 
soil conditions. Deep kernels are liable to show starchi- 
ness. 

8. Size of Ear. The size will vary with the soil and climatic 
conditions. The usual size of an ear in the northern sec- 
tions of the State of Iowa is from 8 to 9>4 inches ; in the 
central sections, 8^ to 9^; in the southern sections, 9 
to 10 inches. The circumference should generally be 
about three-fourths of the length. Ears a trifle long, hav- 
ing a circumference of such size that the ear matured, 
should not be cut seriously for this excessive length. 
Large ears showing signs of immaturity should be cut 
very heavily. 



410 CORN 

9. Size of Cob. Ears with large, coarse, pithy cobs dry out 
slower, are later maturing, and shell less corn. The cob 
may be so small as to indicate weakness. 

IV. VITALITY (GERMINATING POWER). 

1. Color of Embryo. A yellow or brownish colored embryo 
indicates that it has been frozen. Paleness in color usually 
means loss of vitality, due to long storage. Sometimes 
just one of the sprouts will be affected. 

2. Condition of Embryo. A large, swollen embryo indicates 
that it is full of moisture and liable to freezing. When 
shrunken, it may be weak because of prolonged storage. 

3. Adherence of Tip Cap to Cob. Tip caps adhering to the 
cob, leaving the black tips of the germs exposed, indicate 
weakness. 

4. Blistering of Kernel. A kernel blistered on the back indi- 
cates that it was immature and from rapid drying the cou' 
traction of the cells left an air space under the hull. When 
the face of a germ is puffed up or wrinkled, it shows that 
the material composing the germ has shrunken and a 
close inspection of the embryo should be made. 

5. Size of Germ. The germ should be large and open on 
the surface, deep, showing strength and plenty of nutri- 
ment for immediate use of the germinating plantlet. 

6. Plumpness of Tips of Kernels. Plump tips indicate ma- 
turity and give room for large germs. 

7. Adherence of Chaff to Tip Cap. Chaff adhering to tip 
caps of kernels indicates lack of vigor. 

8. Condition of Cob. A cob is often dark colored or may 
show a bluish, mouldy appearance around the butt. In 
such a case, it has not been properly stored or else was 
immature when gathered. 

9. Starchiness. Starchiness indicates a smaller food sup- 
ply for the growing plant. 

ID. Chaffiness. Looseness on the cob and thin, light kernels 
are indicative of weak germinating power. 

II. Sappiness. Corn containing a high percentage of mois- 
ture is liable to freezing. 



USE OF SCORE CARD 411 

V. SHELLING PERCENTAGE. 

1. Size and Density of Cob. A large cob means low shelling 
percentage. A cob of woody texture is always heavy. 

2. Depth of Kernel. The deeper the kernel, the greater the 
proportion of corn to cob. 

3. Filling of Butts and Tips. Other things being equal, ears 
with well filled butts and carrying their size well out on 
the tip, will shell the highest percentage of corn to cob. 
The depth of the kernel should also be maintained over 
the tip. 

4. Space at Cob. Space at the cob is a very definite indica- 
tion of a low proportion of corn to cob. Ears apparently 
sound on the surface may have faults which should be 
carefully looked for. 

5. Furrows Between Rows. A wide open furrow between 
the rows indicates a low shelling percentage and lack of 
breeding. Closeness at the crown or lack of furrow usu- 
ally indicates space at the cob. There should be sufficient 
furrow to permit the corn to dry out readily. 

THE USE OF THE SCORE CARD. In judging single ears 
in class work, or at short courses, the sample usually consists of 
ten ears. After filling out the proper blank at the head of the 
score card and arranging the ten ears in order with two kernels 
placed germ side up at the tip of each ear, the student is 
ready to score the sample. It will be found most convenient 
and practical to score each ear under a respective point 
before going to the next point ; that is, mark each ear under the point 
"shape and size" of ear, before the point of "constitution" is consid- 
ered. By so doing, a comparison is kept constantly in mind. The 
scorer should look over the sample and choose the ear which he thinks 
is nearest to perfection and set down an estimate for it, then rate the 
remainder in comparison. If a similar method is followed for each 
individual point on the score card, the work of scoring will be much 
more correct as well as more rapid. In scoring, the cut should not be 
put down, but the amount allowed entered in the first column under 
the number of the ear. In place of using fractions, decimals should 
be placed in the second column. A cut of .25 per cent is the least. In 
summing up the results, the rating of the cars by the score card should 
correspond with the way one would place them without scoring. That 
is, your judgment should correspond with the score card. In scoring 
a sample of corn the amount that an ear is cut in a given point is net 



412 CORN 

SO important as it is that the cut be in proper proportion in its rela- 
tion to that same point in the other ears in the sample. 

SCORE CARD OF EXTENSION DEPARTMENT. 

The score card used by the Extension Department of the Iowa 
State College takes up the points considered in judging under four 
headings. Being plainly stated and logical, they are easily grasped by 
the average short course student who studies corn but two weeks dur- 
ing the year. 

I. Will it Yield? 25 Points. 

That is, will it yield well; has it constitution; can we depend 
on it even when conditions are unfavorable? 

II. Will it Ripen? 25 Points. 

That is, will it mature; will it ripen every year; is it safe for 
the locality? 

III. Does it Show Improvement? 25 Points. 

That is, has it breeding; has it a distinct type; will it repro- 
duce itself; has it several years of careful selection and improve- 
ment back of it? 

IV. Will it Grow? 25 Points. 

That is, has it vitality; will it germinate; will it all grow and 
grow uniformly, giving strong, vigorous plants? 

SCORE CARD OF I. C. G. A. 

The Iowa Corn Growers' Association adopted in 1908, the follow- 
ing score card : 

I. General Appearance, 25 

1. Size and shape of ear, 10 

2. Filling of butts and tips, 5 

3. Straightness of rows, 5 

4. Uniformity of kernels, 5 
II. Productiveness, ' 60 

1. Maturity, 25 

2. Vitality, 25 

3. Shelling Percentage, 10 

III. Breed Type, 15 

I. Size and shape of ear, 5 



Size, shape, and dent of kernel, 5 

Color of grain, 2 

Color of cob, 2 

Arrangement of rows, i 



PRACTICAL HINTS IN JUDGING CORN 413 

The explanation of points is practically the same as that previous- 
ly described. Its purpose primarily is to condense as much as possible 
the essential points to be considered by a judge in placing awards in 
the State Contest at Ames. The judge is to score each sample and 
attach the score thereto for the benefit of the exhibitor. 

PRACTICAL HINTS IN JUDGING CORN. Exhibitors are rap- 
idly acquiring an intelligent understanding of how to show corn. A 
judge will arrive at a town in which an institute and corn contest are 
to take place. It may be that an old store, a hall, or open tent has 
been reserved for the purpose. A number of entries have been made. 
The corn is in baskets, boxes, sacks, or even hanging about the walls 
by the husks. The first thing for the judge to do is to get some 
wooden horses made or secure some dry goods boxes about three feet 
long. Lay these with end up. Have 14 or 16-foot planks brought up 
from the lumber yard ; place three of these side by side on a row oi 
boxes. Twelve-inch boards are too light and sag in the middle, caus- 
ing trouble with the kernels. Arrange the samples of corn, ten ears 
in a place, at intervals along the outside planks. Separate the samples 
about six inches, by the use of ten-penny nails driven two at each end 
of a sample. If a farmer has brought 13 or 14 ears, let him pick out 
what he considers the best ten to enter. When every improvised table 
has been set in order and all the samples arranged with butts even with 
the outer edge of the outside plank, the corn is ready to be judged. Be- 
fore going any further, have a definite understanding with the officer 
in charge, regarding the classification, rules of entry, number of prizes 
for each class, and other details, in order that there may be no errors 
made. 

Beginning at one end, take two kernels out of each ear, near its 
middle, place the kernels, germ side up with tips of kernels pointing 
toward the ear, at its tip. An experienced judge can now pass upon 
each sample with his eye as he slowly walks by and immediately elim- 
inate some samples from the competition. That is, there may be sam- 
ples which show lack of any definite breeding; each ear is a type in 
itself. Other samples may have a very shallow, flinty kernel with 
large cob and poor butts and tips. Another sample may be a mixture 
of varieties with a number of kernels showing immaturity on the sur- 
face. 

If the show happens to come early in the gathering season, very 
careful examination must be made for maturity. This is especially 
true of corn in the northern districts. By taking each ear in the hands 
and twisting slightly, the movement and sound of the kernels will indi- 



414 CORN 

cate the degree of ripeness. Many samples which are large and showy- 
looking, indicate to the touch and eye of the experienced judge that 
they may not mature. In other words, he cannot place such an entry 
at the top because it is liable to injury by freezing and may not pro- 
duce if planted the next year. Such samples should also either be 
eliminated at once or considered only on condition. 

Corn exhibited during the winter is liable to injury by freezing, or 
may have been frozen previously. A sappy condition of the ears will 
arouse suspicion. Careful examination with a knife of several kernels 
from each ear will indicate those ears which have been frozen and 
hence are likely to germinate weakly. Simply lay open the surface 
of the germ with the point of a knife blade. Allow the embryo to lie 
in its place. If it is brownish or yellowish and swollen, it has very 
likely been frozen. The entire mass of the germ is often like salve, 
having also a yellowish color. A frozen ear could not possibly score 
more than zero for seed purposes. A sample with several frozen 
ears cannot be placed high in the awards if unfrozen corn is on com- 
petitive exhibition. If judging is to be done with old corn which has 
been stored a year or more, it will be difficult to detect an injured 
embryo. Usually, if the embryo be pale in color and much diminished 
in size, the chances of strong germination are slight. Starchiness and 
chaffiness are generally indexes of immaturity in old samples. 

After all means of ready elimination have been carried out, a care- 
ful study of the samples at hand should be made. The size and shape 
of the ears, the size and shape of the kernels, evidence of definite selec- 
tion for breed type — all should be considered. Choose a small 
nnmber of the samples of the highest standard. Study still more, 
carefully balancing the points in favor of one over another. One 
sample may show more breed type, but be a little bit immature, while 
another of large ears may lack uniformity and show little evidence of 
definite selection. It is best to choose the former sample. If any one 
is an outstanding winner, then balance one against another as the 
ranking of the remainder is continued. Often in close competition, the 
ears of two samples may have to be pitted against each other; that 
is, place all the ears of each sample in order of their merit from I 
to 10. Then compare ear No. i of sample A with ear No. i of sample 
B, and so on until the majority of points lies with one sample or the 
other. 

When all the samples are placed, a good plan is to walk around the 
tables once more to satisfy one's self that no samples of worth have 
been overlooked. Always maintain a respect for the opinions of those 



SELECTING A SAMPLE OF CORN FOR SHOW 415 

who may be on-lookers or owners. They are present to learn, if not to 
criticise. Answer questions civilly, taking care to ofifend no one, yet 
placing the awards by your own judgment. Be sure you have a good 
reason for placing every sample before you call the secretary or entry 
clerk to record the winnings. If you have no such reasons, then you 
have placed the samples not by good judgment, but by guess. When 
the ribbons are brought, tie them yourself, reading the entry number 
for the clerk as you do so. In a large show this is often impossible, 
but many times trouble arises from someone tying ribbons on the 
wrong samples. 




CORN TRAY. 

Very convenient for handling s<aniples of 10 ears either in the class room or for exhibi- 
tion purposes. Dimensions — 28 inches long by 12 inches wide by 1 V^ inches deep. Divis- 
ions 2 inches apart. Sides and bottom of i^ inch material. Groove in front % of an 
inch wide. 

SELECTING A SAMPLE OF CORN FOR SHOW. There are 

a great many different points to be taken into consideration in selecting 
a sample of corn for show purposes. An ear of general utility should 
always be uppermost in mind. We often find at corn shows a sample 
of corn in which each ear, while it may be very serviceable, diflfers so 
much from the other ears in the sample that it is impossible for the 
sample to rank high in the competition. When choosing a sample oi 
corn, as in choosing animals for breeding purposes, it is necessary that 
there be a definite type in mind and that each ear of the sample con- 
form as nearly as possible to that type. The type will vary according 
to the variety of corn which is being grown and this type should be 
firmly fixed in the mind of the one who intends to show. 



416 



CORN 




SAMPLE LACKING UNIFORMITY IN LENGTH OF EARS. 

The ears should be as far as possible of the same shape; of uniform 
length and circumference. The kernels of each ear should conform to 
one another throughout, being of uniform size and color. Too often 
the regularity of the kernel is lost sight of and an ear will be displayed 
in which the kernels have a tendency to run in various directions, as 
well as being of numerous sizes. No matter how well matured an ear 
may be, having a very desirable shape, of good size, and shelling a 
high percentage of corn to cob, if the kernels are very irregular and of 
different sizes, it is impossible for that ear to rank high as a seed ear. 
This applies to our dent varieties, all of which we expect to be regular 
and uniform in kernel. 

The butts and tips should be well fitted with kernels of a regular, 
uniform size. The tendency is for the kernels to be large and of irreg- 
ular size at the butt, while often small and shallow at the tip. An 
ear should not be thrown out because the tip is not completely cov- 
ered. A good butt is more essential than a good tip ; it is, however, 
very essential that there be a large amount of good corn between the 
butt and tip. 



There is another class of samples that is very frequently found at 
corn shows in which the ears are of quite uniform size and shape, 
yet the kernels are greatly different. 



EARS SHOULD BE UNIFORM 



417 














f^n f^ft ni o§ '1'' '^'^ 




SAMPLE SHOWING FAIR UNIFORMITY IN LENGTH OF EARS BUT THE 
KERNELS ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPES. 



Very frequently at corn shows the following question will be 
asked by exhibitors : "Has a person a right to take kernels out of 
an ear to examine them before showing?" He most certainly has! It 
is impossible for him to be sure regarding the depth of the kernel with- 
out making an examination. The best way is to take a couple of ker- 
nels out, examine them for shape and depth and place them back in 
the ear, turning one of them about. In this way, they will very gen- 
erally retain their places. There is a very common opinion prevalent 
that if a couple of kernels are taken out of the ears, the judge is very 
liable to consider that these kernels had been "white caps," and there- 
fore the ear will be discriminated against. An exhibitor can no more 
exhibit a ten-ear sample of corn intelligently without taking a couple 
of kernels out of each ear to examine them to see that the sample con- 
forms in uniformity of kernels as well as uniformity of ear, than the 
judge can properly judge a sample of corn without also examining 
the kernels in each ear exhibited. The depth of kernel, plumpness" of 
tip, and size are important factors. 

An immature ear is not entitled to a place. Maturity cannot be 
profitably sacrificed to size of ear, though a nubbin is never desirable 
from the show standpoint. The practical ear (and that is the ear for 
which we should strive), is the largest possible ear that will mature 



41g 



CORN 




m m ^^ 90 ^f^ ^'^ rr nn np pp 



EARS OF SAME LENGTH AND KERNELS SIMILAR IN TYPE. 

in each respective locality, being of the desired type, and shelling a 
high percentage of corn to cob. A small, matured ear is much more 




SECTION OF CORN EXHIBIT AT THE IOWA CORN GROWERS' ASSO 
CIATION. JANUARY, 1907. 



COLLATERAL READING 



419 



desirable than a larger immature one. Examine each ear thoroughl)'. 
Samples of corn with germs showing evidence of freezing are found 
frequently at corn shows. Such samples are unfit for show and should 
receive no place in competition with corn for seed. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Score Card for Dent Corn, 

Ohio Circular No, 6i. 
Hints on Preparing and Holding Corn Shows, 

Indiana Circular No. i. 

Send for score cards of the Corn Growers' Association of each 
state. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE VARIETIES OF DENT CORN 



NOW PRINCIPALLY GROWN IN THE CORN BELT 



LEAMING. 



HISTORY. This is the oldest known variety of corn, having been 
originated by Mr. J. S. Learning, near Wihnington, Ohio, in 1826. At 
this time he began selecting seed from the ordinary yellov^ corn grown 
in Hamilton County on the Little Miami bottoms. As soon as the 
ripening of the husks indicated that the corn was beginning to mature, 
he would go through the field, selecting an ear slightly tapering from 
butt to tip, well filled at butt and tip, with straight rows, and ripening 
in from 90 to no days. For 56 years he followed this careful system 
of selection. His son and other breeders have continued his work. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. The Leaming is not a 
rank growing variety, being more of a producer of grain than stem. 
It has very little tendency to sucker and does not remain green late 
in the fall. 




LEAMING. 

Ear. The tapering ear of the Leaming is a most marked character- 
istic. When allowed to do so without care in selection, the ears will 
so become short with a flaring butt and a rapid, pointed taper from 
shank to tip. Often a row or several rows will be lost near the tip. 
The best breeders today are trying to hold the type full in the middle 
with a gentle taper at the tip. Being a heavy ear, the shank will 



LEAMING 421 



always be large and when removed leave a somewhat open butt. The 
length of ear varies from 9 to 103^ inches, even the northern-grown 
Learning keeping its length. The cob is red, although a pale color 
sometimes appears. Breeders today are trying to eliminate this. 




KERNELS OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES. 

Kernel. A Leaming kernel is of medium depth, quite thick, and 
the edges touch each other at the tip, but part near the crovm. The 
kernel is less of a parallelogram than the Boone County White, and 
consequently has less shoulder at the tip. The germ is very broad and 
sometimes covers the face of the kernel almost as much as the Reid. 
Being horny almost to the crown the kernels give the surface a rich, 
almost orange yellow appearance. The original type was a dimple 
dent, but breeders today have evolved a heavy crease with a deeper 
kernel. The cob is often large and the shelling percentage is seldom 
over 88 per cent. 

Adaptability. Being the first corn to be systematically improved 
in the United States, the Leaming has been carried to all parts of the 
corn belt. The shape of the ear and blockiness of the kernels mark 
many mongrel types to-day. In fact, the one fault of this corn is its 
irregularity of rows and lack of uniformity in the shape of the kernels. 
From the beginning, the breeders have had to watch this character, 
and among the best of them it appears to-day. Not being particular 
as to soil and having originally been selected for early maturity, it is 
found among the most northern of dent varieties. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. In 1885, E. E. Chester, of 
Champaign, Illinois, secured seed from J. S. Leaming. In continuing 
the type, Mr. Chester has selected ears which ripen in from 100 to 120 



422 CORN 

days. J. H. CooHdge, of Galesburg, although securing seed from Mr. 
Chester, has developed even a deeper kernel. 

Leigh F. Maxcy, of Curran, Illinois, says that he purchased his 
first bushel of Learning seed on March lo, 1897, of Mr. E. E. Chester, 
Champaign, Illinois, who secured his seed direct from the originator, 
Mr. J. S. Leaming, of Wilmington, Ohio, in 1885, and from this stock 
of seed perhaps all strains of Leaming corn now grown by different 
breeders in Illinois have been originated. He has grown this variety 
continually since his first purchase. 

In Iowa, the Leaming strain is shown in almost all the unimproved 
corn throughout the state. The large shank and tapering ears are 
commonly present. This corn, however, has been a fair yielder and 
always hardy. Fred Woolley, of Garden Grove, Decatur County, is 
the only breeder who has tried to improve the Leaming in Iowa. He 
began 18 years ago with the common strain as a foundation. How- 
ever, in 1904, he secured the improved type from E. E. Chester, ol 
Champaign, Illinois, and has kept this pure by the "ear to the row" 
method. The original type formerly grown he found earlier than 
Reid's Yellow Dent, but this larger, deeper grained, more improved 
kind is a little later. 

REID'S YELLOW DENT 

EARLY HISTORY. In 1846 Mr. Reid moved from Brown Coun- 
ty, Ohio, to Tazewell County, Illinois, taking with him a reddish col- 
ored variety of corn known as the "Gordon Hopkins" corn, which was 
widely grown in the vicinity where Mr. Reid had lived. The corn 
was planted late in the spring of that year and though yielding well 
the corn was immature. The best of this was selected for seed the 
next year, but because of the immaturity of the seed a poor stand was 
obtained. The field was then replanted with seed of the Little Yellow 
corn and thus a mixed red and yellow corn was obtained. Since that 
time, or for nearly sixty years, this corn has been kept pure and care- 
fully selected for a definite type, and because of this long and careful 
selection its characteristics are unusually well fixed. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— The Stalk. The Reid corn is a 
gross feeder. Being rather highly bred under the best of conditions, 
the stalk is rank with abundant foliage, although not so likely to 
sucker badly as some other varieties. 

The Ear. The Reid's Yellow Dent is characterized by a slowly 
tapering ear, with deeply rounded and compressed butt. When first 
recognized and brought out for exhibition, the tip was very stubby and 



REID'S YELLOW DENT 



423 




424 



CORN 





.^*^Njh^ 


1 




i 


1 

1 


II 


tig-- 


'3i£rf_l' 


*n 


*^i'^^-ir" 


















^^ 






i 




m 




TWO TYPES OF TIPS IN EARS OF REID'S YELLOW DENT. 

The ear to the left has the abruptly rounded, very full tip. This is the D. L. 
Pascal ear, champion of the world. The ear on the right has the gently 
tapering tip which goes with an earlier maturing type of corn. Champion 
of Iowa in 1908, shown by J. A. Mason. 



REID'S YELLOW DENT 425 

was cut off squarely. This peculiar though very showy character was 
found to reproduce a late maturing ear. Hence, at present a gently 
rounding tip is preferred, with, however, depth of kernel over the 
entire cob. A Reid ear hangs on a very small shank and often because 
of too close selection on this point, is even too fine. The ear is me- 
dium in length, measuring 8 to lo^ inches. 

Kernels. The distinct pairing of the rows of kernels, the extreme 
triangular outline of the edges of the kernels which dovetail together 
and the large open-faced germ extending almost to the crown and 
covering the face of the wedge-shaped outline, are all characteristics 
of the Reid corn. Usually the germ has a marked seam down its 
center. The kernels, which are firm and upright on the cob, are of 
varying shades of yellow, usually being light, though not of a weak, 
starchy appearance. Often a tinge of copper color shows on the sur- 
face, due to the early breeding of the "Gordon Hopkins" corn. 

The dentation of the kernels is very noticeable when grown in the 
central part of Illinois or southern Iowa. On strong ground a pinched 
appearance may occur. As it is acclimated to more northern lati- 
tudes the kernels become shallow and flinty with a dimpled surface. 
This was the original Reid type, but the best breeders today select a 
bridge-crease dent. 

Adaptability. Reid's Yellow Dent matures in no to 120 days, 
being a medium late maturing variety. Many farmers in 
Iowa and Nebraska have had very poor success with it the first year, 
because it keeps on growing on rich soils until caught by frost. It 
has, however, become a very versatile variety, and by changing its 
type adapts itself to new environments. Being highly bred, rigid seed 
selection must be continually practiced or the prolificacy and trueness 
to type of the variety is rapidly lost. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. It has been said that there 
are as many types of Reid's Yellow Dent as there are men who grow 
this variety. There are, however, a few breeders who have developed 
such strength of blood lines that each has a group of amateurs follow- 
ing in his footsteps. The Funk Brothers, of Bloomington, Illinois, 
have evolved the Funk's Yellow Dent by selection and mating from 
the original Reid stock. W. E. Johnson, of Athens, has been a pioneer 
in a very substantial way, not only distributing seed in other states, 
but following it up and encouraging the purchasers by putting up 
premiums for them. W. H. Young, also of Athens, has been a con- 
sistent winner in the Reid classes. His corn shows a wonderful true- 



426 



CORN 



_jrnEfim?S(£t^S^SSillVt^ 


m^s^ 




mm, 




m 


J^^V^ffk^^BwI^Pjj* 




cliHVRtff'if^HWHcfrt 


■*My!^l w -"w *" *- 


^^^^ 



ness to type. W. H. Dunseth, of Waveily, Illinois, though a grower 
of several other varieties, has developed a heavy yielding, rough-dent 
Reid, which has been an annual sweepitakes winner at the Illinois 
State Fair. 

In Iowa, D. L. Pascal, of DeWitt, who purchased his own grown 
ear at $150 at the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers' Association in 
January, 1907, has through rigid selection established a Pascal type. 
Mr. Pascal is himself a lover of good corn, and studies the growth of 
the trial, plots in the field. Eastern Iowa has profited much by his 
influence. 

J. F. Summers, of 
Malvern, being on the 
rich soil of the Nishna- 
botna River, has by 
careful selection and 
care in removing weak 
and barren stalks from 
REiD's YELLOW DENT his breeding blocks, 

brought out a heavy yielding type with a very deep kernel. 

F. S. Bone, of Grand River, has carried the theory of experimental 
breeding into actual operation on the farm. The results of his efforts 
are showing in local and state contests. 

W. A. Hook, of Packwood, though starting in a small way, may be 
said to be keeping the closest records of his breeding work of anj 
breeder in the state. 

Among other men who are producing a consistent type of Reid 
corn in Iowa are John Sundberg, of Whiting; Bennett Brothers, of 
Ames; M. S. Nelson, of Goldfield ; Fred McCulloch, of Hartwick; 
L. C. Hutcheson, of West Branch; Neal Brothers, of Mt. Vernon; 
George M. Allee, of Newell; W. P. Coon, of Ames; Charles O. Gar- 
rett, of Mitchellville, C. R. Bishop, of Altoona and Willard Zeller, of 
Cooper. 

IOWA SILVER MINE 

HISTORY. The Iowa Silver Mine originated with J. H. Beagley, 
of Sibley, Illinois, from seed of a white corn which won a prize at the 
Ford County Farmers' Institute in 1890. After several years of care- 
ful breeding, enough seed was secured to plant 20 acres. The result- 
ing entire crop was bought by the Iowa Seed Company, of Des Moines, 
in 1895, for $1,000. They named it the Iowa Silver Mine. 



SILVER MINE 



427 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. Silver Mine is not a 

rank growing variety; even on rich 
ground it does not produce such an 
abundance of foliage as other vari- 
eties. The stem itself is short and 
of a finer texture vi^ith little coarse- 
ness about the joints. Even under 
adverse conditions the hills seem 
comparatively free from, barren 
stalks. 

Ear. The type of ear sought in 
the Silver Mine corn is only me- 
dium in size, with a full middle, be- 
ing cylindrical part of the way from 
butt to tip, and then slowly taper- 
ing ofif at the tip. The length runs 
from 8 to 9^/2 inches and the circum- 
ference is large in proportion. The 
shank is medium small in size, but 
the butt does not have the smoothly 
rounded cup-shape that is found in 
the Reid. The cob is pure white, 
with a very fine texture and weighs 
light when dry. 

Kernel. The rows, which aver- 
age about 18, are paired, though less 
distinctly than in the Reid. There 
is considerable space between the 
crowns because of the depth of the 
kernels. However, the grains are 
firm on the cob and no chaffiness is 
present. The kernel itself is a 
slowly tapering wedge, with a plain 
open-faced germ which graduallly 
widens from crown to tip, until 
it almost covers the endosperm on 
either side. The tip of the ker- 
nel lacks prominent shoulders, but 
rounds ofif plumply. The kernel 
has very little thickness compared 




SILVER MINE. 



428 CORN 

with its width and often the germ extends almost to the back side. 
Silver Mine is properly of a creamy white color, with a medium 
pinched dent. However, some breeders select a shallow kernel with a 
heavy crease dent. The deep grain and small cob in Silver Mine, to- 
gether give it a high shelling percentage, averaging 88 to 89 per cent. 
This deep kernel is, however, very seldom starchy, being horny almost 
to the crown. Starchy crowns are pale white and lose the strength of 
appearance found in the cream color. 

Adaptability. It is claimed by its distributors that the Sil- 
ver Mine is adapted to a wider range of climate and soil than any 
other corn offered on the market. This claim seems very true because 
it is capable of growing on especially poor soils. As it has a tendency 
toward grain rather than fodder production, the plant food in the soil 
goes directly to feeding the ear. The fact that this corn matures in 
from 100 to 105 days accounts for its forging northward on the richer 
soils where previously only very early shallow grained varieties were 
grown. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. F. A. Warner, manager of the 
Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois, has bred the Silver Mine corn for a 
number of years. His type is somewhat larger than that of Iowa and 
is coarser in the cob and later in maturing. 

In Iowa, M. S. Nelson, of Goldfield, has grown this variety in the 
northern section of the state. J. H. Petty, of Elliott, and W. A. Hook, 
of Packwood, have grown a large type quite extensively in the south- 
ern counties. The latter has tried a few ears in the test plots. 

BOONE COUNTY WHITE 

HISTORY. This variety was originated by Mr. James Riley, of 
Boone County, Indiana, in 1876. In that year he selected what he 
considered a desirable type from a large, coarse corn grown in his 
county, known as the White Mastodon. He planted the selected seed 
in an isolated field and developed it by selection without crossing with 
any other varieties. The barren stalks were removed before they pro- 
duced pollen. After several years of such careful work he developed 
a new type of corn which he named after his home county. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. Boone County White is 
a vigorous grower and requires a strong soil. The stalk is rank, with 
heavy joints and short internodes. Although not suckering extremely, 
the leaf expanse is large. 



BOONE COUNTY WHITE 



429 






BOONE COUNTY WHITE. 



Ear. The ear of this 
variety of white corn is 
longer in proportion to 
its circumference than 
is the Silver Mine. The 
shape is quite cylindri- 
cal, with a slow taper 
the entire length of the 
ear. Both butt and tip are cut off squarely. The shank is very 
large and when broken off leaves a flat, rather open butt, around 
which the kernels do not fill in. The cob is rather open and porous 
and usually quite heavy. The length of ear varies between 9 and 10^ 
inches. 

Kernel. The Boone County corn is a pearly, clear white, due to 
the fact that the crown starch is such a very thin layer that the horny 
endosperm below shows on the surface of the ear. The kernels are me- 
dium to shallow in depth, but because there is no excess of dent the 
percentage of corn to cob is surprising though not high. The rows 
have some space at the crown due to the fact that the sides touch 
all the way down to the tips. That is, the kernel is almost a perfect 
oblong with little narrowing at the tip. The thickness of the kernel 
is greater than any other of the principal varieties. The germ extends 
almost to the crown, but is not so wide at the tip as in the Reid or 
Silver Mine. In other words, the horny endosperm lies prominently 
on each side of the germ, forming near the attachment at the cob a 
pronounced shoulder. The dent in earlier years was sometimes so 
smooth as to resemble the dimple. It later became the crease, and 
some breeders have deepened the kernel and shortened the ear, until 
a slight pinch is noticed. Although bred pure, unless the care is taken 
in selecting seed each year, there is a tendency for the ears to become 
shallow and flinty over the tip. Often the furrows become too deep 
also. 

Adaptability. Boone County White makes demands on the 
soil which can not be supplied except in alluvial districts. Being a 
medium to late maturing corn, requiring a season of 120 to 125 days, 
it will never move northward very far. At present, it is found prin- 
cipally in the southern half of Indiana and Illinois, and in a fe-*v 
counties near the south line of Iowa. Missouri is a Boone County 
corn state. 



430 CORN 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. In Illinois, O. C. Black, of 
Champaign, has developed a rougher type with a deeper kernel. A 
number of other breeders in the state have done the same thing. 

In Iowa, Lenus Hagglund, of Essex, on the rich soil of the Nish- 
nabotna, has kept very pure and raised to high standard of product- 
iveness and quality, a type of Boone County which, although of a 
rough dent, shows the original form. Because of the quality of this 
seed a considerable locality near Essex has taken up the variety. F. 
S. Bone, of Grand River, breeds the Riley type strictly. 

LEGAL TENDER 

HISTORY. In 1876, Nims Brothers, of Emerson, Iowa, crossed 
two distinct types of corn, one a short ear with deep grains and from 
20 to 24 rows of kernels ; the other a long ear with good shaped ker- 
nels and from 12 to 16 rows. The resulting cross was developed into 
a variety that has been carefully selected for 30 years. Their 
first winnings were made at the corn exhibit held in connection with 
the Chicago Fat Stock Show in 1886. The late D. B. Nims, deceased 
November 1906, was an inveterate worker and did much to dissemi- 
nate this breed of corn by exhibiting at the Iowa State Fair and at 
the annual contests of the Iowa Corn Growers' Asociation. In all his 
breeding he strove for yield, even sometimes losing sight of uniformi- 
ty of kernels and shapeliness of the ear. J. W. and Henry L. Nims ara 
continuing the work of the brother and father. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. A field of Legal Tender 
can almost be distinguished from that of any other variety even under 
similar conditions. From the time of germination to maturity the 
plant is a very vigorous grower and shows an abundance of foliage 
even on poor ground. In fact, it can be severely criticised for this 
tendency. The nodes are thick and prominent and the internodes 
stocky. Because it does draw heavily upon the soil and because this 
character has not been discriminated against in its early development, 
the Legal Tender throws out a large number of suckers. 

Ear. The ear of Legal Tender when judged by the standards of 
other breeds seems to lack proportion. That is, its extreme length, 
9^ to 11 inches, is not proportioned by like circumference. The ear 
is almost cylindrical and the tip rounds off abruptly. There is a ten- 
dency about the butt to be poorly filled, but the shank is none too 
large for the weight of the ear. The cob does not have quite the 
cherry-red color found in the Reid corn. 



LEGAL TENDF.R 



431 




SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN EAR OF LEGAL TENDER. 
Note the deep kernels with large germs. 



Kernel. The original type of Legal Tender was a kernel of me- 
dium depth. But a few breeders have developed a very deep grain 
which soon became shoe-pegged and lacking in fullness at the tip. 
This type was also very chafiy and became late in maturing and rather 
starchy. However, the kernel is the deepest of the varieties of Iowa 
and is rather narrow with straight sides, and quite prominent shoul- 
ders at the tip. The germ, which extends in depth almost to the back 
of the thin grain, is very broad and covers the entire face of the kernel, 
reaching near the crown as well. Although very deep and shelling 
90 per cent of corn, the kernels are firm on the cob. 

Adaptability. Having originated on the rich, warm soils of 
southwestern Iowa, the Legal Tender is really a special purpose va- 
riety. When tried farther north the only outcome has been a shorten- 



432 CORN 

ing of the kernel and a lessening of the size of ear. In northern Mis- 
souri and eastern Kansas it has proved to be a very heavy yielder. 
When pushed farther westward into Kansas, however, it did not se- 
cure sufficient rainfall. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. The immediate locality of 
Emerson has developed a number of Legal Tender enthusiasts. Mont- 
gomery and Page Counties have several men who produce a winning 
type. As yet all are amateurs and could not be spoken of as breeders 

JOHNSON COUNTY WHITE 

*The Johnson County White variety was originated in Johnson 
County, Indiana about twenty-two years ago. It is a cross between 
Boone County White and Forsythe's Favorite. 

The first work done in producing this variety was in 1890, when 
Mr. J. D. Whitesides crossed a white variety which he had been calling 
Dungan's White Prolific (afterwards found to be Boone County 
White) with Forsythe's Favorite. Somewhat later Mr. L. B. Clore, 
who was also living in Johnson County, made the cross between 
Boone County White and Forsythe's Favorite, independently of Mr. 
Whitesides. At about this same time Mr. J. R. Overstreet began 
breeding this corn from seed received from Mr. Whitesides. Each 
man gave a different name to the corn, Whitesides calling it White- 
side's Imperial White Dent, Clore calling it Farmer's Interest, and 
Overstreet naming it Overstreet's Peerless. In 1899 the three men 
decided to combine and to call the corn the Johnson County White 
Dent by which name it is now generally known. 

Excellent work has been done in breeding up this variety and it 
won the grand sweepstakes prize for three years at the National Corn 
Show. 

The corn does not differ materially from Boone County White in 
size, but it is rougher and the tips have a sharper taper. In Missouri 
the length is ten and one-half inches to eleven inches, and the circum- 
ference seven and one-half to seven and three-quarters inches. The 
kernels are somewhat narrower and are nearly square at the summit, 
having straight instead of curved sides. They also average deeper 
than do those of Boone County White and are more starchy in com- 
position, which gives them a rather starchy white color. The rows 
are straight and kernels uniform. The indentation is properly a deep 
crinkled crease to a short pinch. 

•Missouri Experiment Station. . 



WHITE SUPERIOR 433 

Johnson County White is a medium late maturing variety requir- 
ing a growing season of from 120 to 125 days; in which respect it is 
similar to the Boone County White. In stalk character also it is very 
similar to the Boone County, being plentifully supplied with foliage, 
and naturally requiring a fertile soil to produce a good quality of corn. 

GOLDEN EAGLE. This variety of corn was originated by Mr. 
H. B. Perry, of Toulon, in Stark County, Illinois, in 1871. He began 
his selection from a variety known as the "Mason County Yellow," 
which was a small eared corn with small, bright yellow kernels and 
red cob. This corn has never been crossed with other varieties and 
selection has been especially for a large proportion of corn to cob, 
which fact is evidenced in the deep kernels and well filled ends. 

The ear should be slowly tapering and of medium length ; kernels 
deep, bright yellow in color, loose and upright on cob, with straight 
edges and sharp, rough dent ; number of rows 16 to 20, with medium 
to wide spacing between the rows ; butt moderately rounded and com- 
pressed, cob small and red with small shank. This variety is of me- 
dium maturity, ripening in from 100 to 115 days, and is adapted to the 
latitude of central Illinois, where it is grown to a considerable extent. 

GOLDEN ROW. Golden Row originally came from Scioto Coun- 
ty, Ohio, 41 years ago, but has been grown by Lee Smith & Son, of 
DeSoto, Nebraska, as a distinct variety for over thirty years. 

Golden Row is of a bright yellow color, with deep grains. The 
ears grow from 9 to 11 inches in length, with a circumference of 7^ to 
8^ inches. Although having a strong tendency to sucker it matures 
in from 110 to 120 days. 

WHITE SUPERIOR. The history of the White Superior variety, 
as nearly as can be learned from the account of Mr. P. R. Sperry, of 
Warren County, Illinois, a breeder of this corn, is as follows: Mr. 
Shafifer, a seed specialist, in 1880 brought from Pennsylvania to AVar- 
ren County, Illinois, a variety of corn called White Elephant. In 1895, 
Mr. Sperry began selecting seed from this variety for a different type 
than the White Elephant. He selected one bushel of seed of the type 
desired and planted this seed by itself, so that it would not be mixed 
with any other variety. In changing the type of corn Mr. Sperry 
changed the name to the White Superior. It is a medium to late ma- 
turing variety, ripening in 105 to 120 days. 

His selection was as follows: Kernels one-half inch in length and 
one-fourth inch in width; ears 11 inches long, 7^ inches circumference, 
with little space between rows. The White Superior is adapted to 
central and north central sections of the state of Illinois. 



434 CORN 

This white corn as it is bred today is of medium size, the length not 
exceeding 9 and the circumference 7 inches. There are usually about 
18 to 20 distinct rows of tapering, dented kernels, with slightly curved 
edges. The shank is medium to large, with a medium white cob. 

SHENANDOAH YELLOW. 

*History. The Shenandoah Yellow has been a distinct variety 
or rather type, in the vicinity of Shenandoah, Iowa, for twenty years. 
It is the result of improving and selecting good strains of yellow corn 
brought there from Illinois by the early settlers. It represents the 
southwestern Iowa idea of a big, rough, yellow corn of good form, 
high feeding quality, and extra heavy yielding ability. S. E. 
Field and others of Page County, Iowa, were the early growers of this 
corn. It was not offered for sale and distribution until 1901, when 
it was entered in the seed catalog of Henry Field. It has proved a 
great success in loose, warm, fertile soils ; but as it is a heavy feeder, 
it has proved a failure on hard-pan land in light soils. It is especially 
popular in northwestern Missouri. 

Breed Characteristics. The stalk is very coarse, with abundant 
foliage. This corn is a very rank grower. The ear is a large 
one, measuring about 10 inches. The kernel is very deep and 
is broader than most of the high shelling varieties. It has a very 
sharp, pinched dent. The type is not as yet very uniform, but the 
predominating color is a dark orange yellow, and the shape of the ear 
is almost cylindrical. 

FARMERS' RELIANCE. H. H. Connell, of Deep River, Iowa, 
is the breeder of this corn, which is the result of a cross, his object 
being an extra early corn, yet as large as it could be made. As Pride 
of the North has been improved, he has allowed Farmers' Reliance 
to become somewhat larger and also later. It is now medium early, 
a strong, rapid grower, and a sure cropping variety. The ears are 
medium in size, tapering, with firm, rather smooth grain. 

PRIDE OF THE NORTH.— History. Pride of the North was 
originated and developed by H. J. Goddard of Fort Atkinson, Iowa. 
Mr. Goddard began breeding this corn in 1870. Forty bushels of this 
seed were sold to the Adams Seed Company, of Decorah, Iowa, in 
1875. The next year Mr. Savage, special agent for the Hiram Sibley 
Seed Company of Chicago, came out to Mr. Goddard's farm and con- 

*The real development of this variety has been brought about by the efforts of Frank 
Keenan of Shenandoah. 



SILVER KING 



435 









ogo 



' ^ c^ ^-^-^ cia- 



«T!^-0 









PRIDE OP THE NORTH. 



distribute it over that state. 



iracted his entire crop. The publicity 
given the new variety by this large 
company, together with its record in 
the corn show soon made the Pride of 
the North the most widely grown corn 
in the northern part of Iowa and Illi- 
nois. In 1886 a sample of Mr. God- 
dard's own breeding was awarded first 
premium at the Chicago Exposition. 
Breed Characteristics. Pride of the 
North is a yellow corn with rather 
shallow kernel, slightly tapering ear, 
and having 12 to 16 rows of kernels, is 
therefore small in circumference. Its 
strongest points are early maturity and 
strength of breeding. 

SILVER KING.— History. Silver 
King Early Dent corn was originated 
and developed by H. J. Goddard, of 
Fort Atkinson, Iowa. Of the truly 
great breeders of corn which have car- 
ried on their work in Iowa, Mr. God- 
dard is the foremost. In 1869 he pur- 
chased half a bushel of seed corn from 
a man living in Eldorado, Fayette 
county, Iowa. The seed originally 
came from Indiana. Mr. Goddard has 
persistently kept the large yet early 
maturing type in mind. ^Selection in 
the field each year has tended to pro- 
duce uniformity and fixity of breed 
characteristics. Silver King dent corn 
was successfully shown at the World's 
Fair in New Orleans in 1884 and again 
in Chicago in 1886. Its value as a 
heavy yielder for the northern locali- 
ties has led Professor R. A. Moore, of 
the Wisconsin Agricultural College, to 
Results show its adaptability. 



Breed Characteristics. It is a pure white corn, very large ears for 



436 I CORN 




northern sections. The butts and 
tips have been bred to complete 
filling. The grain is very deep for 
such an early corn. Its maturity 
is assured every year. 



SILVER KING, 



EARLY MASTODON. The Early Mastodon corn originated 
with C. 5. Clark, of Huron County, Ohio, to meet the demand for a 
large eared yet early maturing variety. It is reckoned as a lOO-day 
corn and has a very wide field of tested adaptability. 

CHASE'S WHITE DENT. 

History. *"The original- stock of Chase's White Dent corn 
has been grown in southeastern Nebraska for 30 years or more, 
and was known as the Tucker corn. This old strain of corn 
is quite popular today in some localities. It has a long slender 
ear, a universally white cob, and is an easy picking, hardy corn. 
In 1894, the dryest season probably ever seen in this section, 
this Tucker corn gave an average yield of 25 bushels or thereabouts. 
Noticing the hardiness of this corn we obtained some for seed for the 
next season. In 1894, O. E. Hall, while visiting in Arkansas, chanced 
to find a white corn with a very deep grain and short cob well filled 
at both ends. He brought a few ears home with him and planted 
them. We obtained a few ears of this seed, and planted it with our 
corn in a fertile portion of the field — a rude, but effective cross. Since 
that the improvement has been by ear selection entirely, until the last 
two years, when the row selection system of breeding has been prac- 
ticed. No pedigree seed for sale however. A son in the agricultural 
school, believing the corn a good corn for show, selected 30 ears for 
the corn show at Lincoln in the winter of 'o3-'o4. This exhibit at- 
tracted such favorable comment as to cause a representative of the 
Nebraska Commission at St. Louis to come to our farm cribs and 
examine the corn and purchase 100 bushels of it for that show, to 
represent the state." 

Breed Characteristics. Owing to the fact that this corn had 
no name, and as the Nebraska Corn Improvers' Association required 
a standard, the corn was named Chase's White Dent and given a 
standard. The standard was adopted by the Association and is as 
follows : 



*P. W. Chase, Pawnee City, Nebraska. 



GOLDEN GLOW 437 

Shape, slowly tapering. 

Length, 9 inches. 

Circumference, 7 inches. 

Kernel, upright. 

Translucent in color, and rough. 

Kernel shape, broad wedge. 

Cob, white and carries from 14 to 18 rows of grains. 

Per cent of corn to cob, 86. 

This corn has won its own place in the corn world, and has shown 
itself to be one of the fittest. It matures about two weeks later than 
Reid's Yellow Dent. 

WISCONSIN NO. 7.— (Originally Silver King.) *"The foundation 
stock of this corn I received from Mr. William Banks, Burt, Iowa. My 
attention was called to this corn at a corn contest held at Algona, 
where I assisted Professor Holden in judging corn. We awarded 
first prize to this type of corn and I was so satisfied with the corn 
that on my return to Wisconsin I corresponded with Mr. Banks, the 
exhibitor, and secured 30 bushels of this corn for our use. We car- 
ried on breeding work at our station farm in accordance with the ear- 
to-the-row method and improved the corn considerable in leaf and 
stalk development; also in yield of perfect ears. In 1907 something 
like 17 or 18 per cent of all ears gathered from the field classed as 
seed ears. We have bred to produce as far as possible one ear to 
the stalk, because where it produces only one ear the seed is likely to 
be better than where two or three are produced. Since the corn was 
perfected we began a rapid dissemination of it through our Experiment 
Association. We established some 1500 corn centers in Wisconsin, 
and had members of our Association growing corn for seed purposes 
at these centers. We feel that the equivalent of no less than 12,000,- 
000 bushels of this corn was grown in Wisconsin last year (1907). 
One breeding acre at the station farm produced 98.6 bushels in 1907. 
This is the largest yield ever secured from this or any other variety." 

GOLDEN GLOW. 

**Golden Glow corn, Wisconsin No. 12, is a cross between Wiscon- 
sin No. 8, a selection from the Minnesota No. 13 grown at this Station, 
and North Star, Wisconsin No. 11. The Wisconsin No. 8 was used as 
the male parent and the No. 11 as the female. The No. 8 is a rather 
small, very early-maturing corn, while the No. 11 is considerably 

*Prof. R. A. Moore, University of Wisconsin. 

**B. L. Leith, Instructor in Agronomy, University of Wisconsin. 

(15) 



4-S CORN 

larger and later maturing. The object of the cross was to obtain the 
early quality of the No. 8 combined with the size of the No. 11. The 
No. 8 and No. 11 were planted in alternate rows in 1905. The tassels 
of all of the No; 11 were removed, thus all the corn produced on the 
No, 11 stalks were of hybrid nature. Selection was made from this 
cross for earliness and size. The first few years showed consider- 
able variation in type, but after rigorous selection for ten years a very 
uniform corn has been produced. As soon as the corn showed con- 
stancy of type it was distributed to the members of the Wisconsin 
Experiment Association and tested out in a large way throughout the 
state. From reports from hundreds of members each year, the Station 
was assured that we had a variety of corn of superior quality. It 
proved to be a good yielder and vigorous grower and was found es- 
pecially adapted to the central part of the state. 

Characteristics. The plant grows to a height of eight to twelve 
feet, is well leaved and vigorous. The ear is a deep yellow, or golden 
in color, length S^ to 9| inches, circumference 6^ to 7 inches. The 
shape of the ear is nearly cylindrical, with a moderately rounded butt 
and tip. The cob is cherry red, from IJ to 1^ inches in diameter. The 
number of rows on the ear varies from fourteen to eighteen. The 
kernel is a medium wedge in shape, medium deep and crumpled in- 
dentation. 

NEBRASKA WHITE PRIZE. Nebraska White Prize is a very 
strong heavy rooted variety, stands drouth well, and is extra free from 
suckers. The crop matures in 110 to 120 days and produces an ear 
9 to 11 inches in length by 7^ to 8 inches in circumference. This 
variety has been bred pure for 38 years. It has been selected to a 
definite type by Lee Smith & Son, of DeSoto, Nebraska, for the last 
32 years. 

*BLOODY BUTCHER.* Bloody Butcher is a variety that takes 
its name from its color, which is a mixture of red and yellow, and like 
all varieties which take their name from one characteristic, its other 
characteristics may show a wide variation. It is medium early and 
has a very deep grain. It has local names in some sections. 

CALICO CORN.* Calico corn is another variety which takes its 
name from its peculiar color. It is a mixture of white and blue grains, 
although mixtures of red and white or red and yellow are also called 
Calico. The latter are, however, of the Bloody Butcher type. Calico 
is grown in many localities and it has no fixed characteristics. 

*Ohio Circular No. 117. 



IOWA IDEAL 439 

IOWA IDEAL. **]n 1883 Mr. W. D. Kaylon, of Strahan, Iowa, 
purchased several bushels of white corn of a neighbor. The variety 
was known as St. Charles White. In 1894 H. Hilton, of Malvern, 
Iowa, secured some of this corn. At that time it was a good corn, but 
there were two different types; one a very thick ear with a large 
shank; the other a wfll proportioned ear with a medium shank and 




IOWA IDEAL 



thinner kernel. The best ears of the latter were selected and by close 
breeding the type has become unusually well fixed. In changing the 
type of this corn it was named the "Iowa Ideal." This corn was 
first shown in 1904 by the originator, and won at every place exhibit- 
ed. It has been shown at all of the leading corn shows since and has 
always "been in the money." In shape of ear, trueness to type, uni- 
formity in size, and shape of kernel, this corn is not excelled by any 
other variety. The shape of ear is partly cylindrical, tapering at tip ; 
kernels creamy white, rather thicker than Silver Mine, having no 
thin-grained chaffy ears. The grain is well dented, a pinched crease 
dent, with plump, rounding tips ; 20 rows distinctly paired ; cob me- 
dium size, white, shank medium, well filled butts and tips; length of 
ear 9 to io>^ inches; circumference yYz to 7^ inches; matures in no 
to 115 days. This corn does not come from the Silver Mine, as is 
often thought. 

**From letter of H. Hilton, of Malvern. 



440 CORN 

"WILLHOIT." *"We began to breed the Willhoit corn forty 
years ago by using corn that my father brought from Kentucky 
in the year 1848. I used the best ears that I could find in the field in 
the fall, by going through and selecting the earliest and best shaped 
ears, free from mixed grains, and at the same time being careful to get 
ears that grew out and down from the stalk so as to turn the water 
out of the ears. As you will know, all ears that grow straight up 
with the stalk are filled at the butt in the fall with water and spoiled, 
and also very hard to shuck and never grow even on the stalk. 

"I will say it took me ten years to get the corn to send out ears 
at an even height and to grow on a small shank with just enough 
husk to cover the corn and no more. I was 15 years getting rid of 
the red ears and somewhat longer getting rid of white cobs. We make 
our selection of seed in the fall as we gather, so that we can get the 
best ears from the stoutest stalks, the proper height from the ground, 
and also those not having too much shuck." 

CATTLE KING. Cattle King originated with W. W. Van Sant 
in Mercer County, Illmois, in 1868. In 1877 this corn was brought 
by the originator to Fremont County, Iowa, in the great Nishnabotna 
Valley, three miles northwest of Farragut. Here on a farm of two 
sections Mr. Van Sant and his sons have developed a very large yel- 
low variety which is a heavy yielder. The ears are from 9 to 12 inches 
long and from 7^ to 9 inches in circumference, containing from 16 to 
24 rows and weighing 10 to 18 ounces. The kernel is very deep, rather 
broad, closely packed on the cob, with little space between the rows. 
The stalk grows rank, producing in many cases two ears. 

KANSAS SUNFLOWER. The Kansas Sunflower variety origi- 
nated with John Moody, Eudora, Kansas. Although the ears are 
somewhat small in circumference, the length allows a very heavy 
yield. This variety is especially adapted to rather dry soil. The rich 
yellow color and deep kernel make it a good feeding corn, very much 
desired by the farmers. 

MINNESOTA NO. 13. Minnesota No. 13, a very early maturing, 
yet heavy yielding variety, has been developed and brought before the 
farmers of Minnesota by the Minnesota Experiment Station. The 
ears, though but of medium size, show a wonderful uniformity of 
rows, and evidence breeding and selection. The dent is that of the 
dimple and the endosperm is largely horny, showing little of the 
cloudy, white starch at the crown. Nevertheless, there is no sign of 

♦Written ty the originator, Willis J. Willhoit, after forty years of experience. 



MINNESOTA NO. 13 441 

the flinty, round tendency of the kernels, although the tips of ears are 
not so well covered as in the varieties farther south. 

The Gurney Seed Company, of Yankton, South Dakota, introduced 
Minnesota No. 13 into their state in 1906. The success of the variety 
has been amazing. By August 20th of that year the ears in the field 
were safe from frost, and husking began October 8th. Yields in 
general have run from 50 to 75 bushels per acre. 




HILDRETH CORN GROWN IN KANSAS 

HILDRETH YELLOW DENT. Hildreth Yellow Dent may be 
called a native variety, so to speak, of Labette County, Kansas. The 
originator C. E. Hildreth, of Altamount, Kansas, began selecting and 
breeding this corn after 1901, because of the sturdy way in which it 
withstood the drought of that year. It is a large, rank growing, late 
variety, maturing in 125 to 130 days; ears large; length 9 to 11 inches; 
circumference 7 to 8 1-2 inches; slightly tapering; medium large 
shank and cob ; red cob with 18 to 24 rows of well formed deep, yellow 
grains ; well filled out at butt and tip. Grains wedge shape, medium 
in width and indentation ; large germ ; deep and firm on cob, giving 
large percentage of shelled corn. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Co-operative Variety Tests of Corn in 1902 and i[):),l 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 83. 
Seed Corn and Some Standard Varieties for Illinois. 

Illinois Bulletin No. 63. 

Test of Varieties, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 55. 
Varieties for Minnesota, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 40. 



442 



CORN 



New Strains of Corn, 

U. S. Report No. 83. 

Variety Tests of Corn, 

North Dakota Bulletin No. yo. 

Variety Tests of Corn, 

Virginia Bulletin No. 165. 

Variety Tests of Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. 124. 

Johnson County White, 
Missouri Bulletin. 

Ohio Circular No. 117. 




CHAPTER XX. 



CORN BREEDING 



THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER 

Every farmer should grow the greater part of his own seed corn. 
The idea that corn will run out if grown for a long period in a given 
locality is a fallacy. There is no corn so well adapted to a given lo- 
cality as that which has been grown there and given intelligent selec- 
tion for a period of years. Therefore, every farmer should have his 
"Selection Bed" each year, from which he selects his seed corn for 
the planting of his larger fields the following year. 

SECURING THE SEED FOR PLANTING THE SELECTION 
BED. In starting the "Selection Bed," seed may be secured from 
three sources : 

1. From your own corn. 

2. From someone in your locality. 

3. From someone not in your locality. 

These will be discussed separately under their respective headings 

From Your Own Corn. As suggested above, this should be 
rhe best source to secure the seed for starting the selection bed. Your 
own corn may naturally be expected, after having been home grown 
for a period of years, to be the best adapted to your own peculiar 
climate and soil conditions. 

From Someone In Your Locality. If your own corn is badly 
mixed, with no type, seed having been saved each year without any 
special attention being paid to maturity and type, then, it is very prob- 
able that a neighbor in the immediate locality, who has been careful 
regarding these particulars, will be able to furnish seed which is 
much more desirable than your own. This should be given a germi- 
nation test, that all weak and worthless ears may be discarded. 

From Someone Not In Your Locality. It is to be hoped that 
this will not be necessary. It is the least desirable source of the 
three. When going outside your locality for seed, it is best to keep 



444 CORN 

within your own latitude and at very moderate distances, that there 
may be less chance for contrast in soil and climatic conditions. 

It is dangerous to go south, owing to the longer growing season. 
Such seed is likely to produce a crop, which, under normal conditions, 
will not mature satisfactorily, while an early fall would prove disas- 
trous, resulting in a quantity of "soft corn." It is better to go north 
for seed than to go south. Seed secured from the north is accustomed 
to a shorter growing season, producing a smaller stalk and ear than 
that grown further south. Should seed corn be secured from a dis- 
tance, especially southward, it should be only for the planting of a 
small patch and not for planting the general fields. By means of 
proper selection, it will be found to more closely adapt itself to its 
environment, so that in a few years it will have become thoroughly 
acclimated. The length of time depends upon the contrast in the soil 
and climatic conditions between the two localities. 

SELECTING SEED FOR SELECTION BED. As it takes but 
from 12 to 14 average sized ears of corn for the planting of ah acre 
where a 3 foot 6 inch planter is used, with 3 kernels to the hill; 40 
to 50 ears will be a desirable number to select. In the first place, 
it is to be expected that a quantity of seed corn has been previously 
selected and stored. In the process of giving this seed corn the germi- 
nation test, it will be noticed that some of it comes with much more 
strength and vigor than the rest. In fact, by careful examination it 
will be found that 40 to 50 ears may be selected in the germination 
box, which have pushed forward during the process of germination 
more rapidly than have the rest. These ears may be laid aside and 
used for planting the selection bed. They should be shelled and 
graded. 

In choosing these ears for the selection bed, it is preferable that 
they be of one type. The best type of ear and kernel is not the same 
for all conditions of environment. In localities where the soil is rich 
and the season long, a large ear with deep, narrow kernels will ma- 
ture, while in the more northern districts, where the seasons are com- 
paratively shorter, a smaller ear with shallower grains, less of the 
pinch dent, and more of the flinty characteristics, must necessarily be 
a more desirable type. 

SIZE AND LOCATION OF SELECTION BED. For the 

average Iowa farm of 160 acres, a three-acre selection bed is of 
sufficient size. This should be preferably an isolated field or in 
the south or southwest corner of the general field. Should there 



CARE OF SELECTION BED 445 

be another field of corn near the south line of your own, then 
the selection bed may be placed either to the north side of your 
general field or in the center of it. The seed planted by a neighbor 
just to the south of your general field may not have been selected 
as carefully as your own and also might be of a different 
variety. Therefore, it would be preferable for the pollen from your 
own general field to fall on your selection bed than to have the pollen 
from the field adjoining. The prevailing winds in summer are from 
the south and southwest. This is the reason for locating the selection 
bed as above. The selection bed should, if possible, be on fall plowed 
ground, which, if properly cared for in early spring, matures the corn 
earlier. 

PLANTING THE SELECTION BED. The selection bed should 

be planted with the specially selected seed as soon as the ground has 
sufficiently warmed up in the spring and the seed bed has been put in 
proper condition. The corn planter should be used, planting the same 
number of kernels per hill as in the general field. A good seed bed 
always pays well for the time taken in its preparation. 

CARE OF SELECTION BED. The selection bed should be cared 
for in the same way as the general field; cultivating at least 3 times 
and 4 if possible. It will demand no special attention until the corn 
begins to put forth its tassels. The tassel is the staminate (male 
flower) ; the silk is the pistillate (female flower.) There is one silk 
for every kernel. Only one pollen grain is necessary for the fertiliza- 
tion of a silk. In the selection bed there will naturally be found num- 
erous weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, which, whether or not 
an ear is produced, will, with few exceptions, produce tassels which 
will shed their pollen over the field. In order that this pollen may be 
eliminated from the selection bed, take a sharp knife of good size 
and go into this patch just at the time when the first tassels begin 
to appear, cut down all weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, cut 
ting them close to the ground. This will not only eliminate the 
spreading of this pollen, but will be of further benefit to the field by 
not permitting these worthless stalks to draw nourishment from the 
soil to the sacrifice of stalks which are producing ears. It is very 
properly assumed that a strong appearing, mature ear, may be great- 
ly injured for seed purposes by being fertilized by the pollen from 
weak and unproductive stalks. While the ear that season may not 
show the influence, yet when used for seed the following year, it 
may be expected that "the sins of the fathers will be visited on the 
children to the third and fourth generations." If the pollen from these 



446 



CORN 



weak and unproductive stalks is permitted to be shed it will undoubt- 
edly be the father of many of the kernels produced on the strong, 
vigorous looking ears. Weak parentage in the line of our livestock 
has long been considered undesirable for satisfactory results. It should 
likewise be eliminated in corn by means of the selection bed. 

CAUSES OF BARREN STALKS. Stalks that bear no ears are 
called barren stalks. With very few exceptions, they will have a tassel 
and shed pollen the same as other stalks. Barren stalks are not espe- 
cially the weak stalks in the field, but very much to the contrary. They 
may be attributed to several causes, weak seed, insect injuries and 
diseases, unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, and too thick plant- 
ing. 

Weak Seed. While many of the barren stalks are of strong and 
vigorous growth, a few are also found much smaller and weaker 
in appearance. More than anything else, poor seed is responsible for 
the weak stalks that appear in the field. A large number of the weak 
stalks are barren. 

The following table is given in illustration of this : 



Ear 


STRONG SEED 


Ear No. 


WEAK SEED 


No. 


Germination | Stand 


Barren 


Germination 1 


Stand 


1 Barren 




S. W. B. 






! 


S. W. B. 




1 


49 


6—0—0 


74.3 


1.9 


50 


4—0—2 


74.8 


3.2 


25 


6—0—0 


75.2 


.6 


9 


2—4—0 


75.7 


6.3 


28 


6-0-0 


77.1 


.0 


40 


4—2—0 


77.6 


4.9 


34 


6-0-0 


78.1 


1.8 


37 


4-2-0 


79.1 


4.8 



The ears used in this table are taken from results at 3 county 
stations in different parts of Iowa. 

Weak seed produces weak stalks with poor root development, 
which are seldom able to yield grain. 

Insect Injuries and Diseases. The plant draws the hardest upon 
the soil at the time of putting forth its shoots and tassels. A corn 
plant may not have its root system so injured during its early 
growth, but that the stalk can be very well supplied, and in case of 
rich ground, a strong, vigorous looking plant may often be produced. 
Yet at the time when the plant is ready to put forth its shoot and 
tassel, it is unable to do both because of its roots having been lacerat- 
ed by insect pests. In such cases, the ear is sacrificed, while with few 
exceptions the tassel will be present. 

The foregoing is especially applicable to the corn root worm and 
the white grub. The corn root aphis will accomplish the same re- 
sults. It does not lacerate the roots, but sucks the nourishment. 
Chinch bugs coming on to corn just before shooting time, often suck 



BARRENNESS CAUSED BY DISEASE 



447 



the sap away to such an extent as to leave the stalk weakened and 
consequently barren. 




CORN PLANT AFFECTED BY SMUT IN VARIOUS PLACES. 



448 



CORN 



A smut spore may alight and develop on the ear. Instead of the 
plant food being used for the kernels, the mycelium of the smut 
withdraws it for use in the formation of the smutted mass. 

Unfavorable Soil and Climatic Conditions. In light soils not suit 
able for corn production, a large percentage of barren stalks are pro- 
duced. The plants in general, under such conditions show a lack of 
strength. Should this unsuitable condition be accompanied by un- 
favorable climatic conditions, such as an especially wet spring with 
cool days and nights so unfavorable for the growth of the young corn 
plants, the amount of barrenness will be increased. 

Too Thick Planting. When corn is planted so thick that the 
soil is unable to supply enough plant food to maintain the stalks 
and at the same time produce ears, a large number of barren stalks 
result. From a given area of land, the largest yield of corn will be 
secured if the amount of seed planted is just within the limit of the 
ability of the soil to support the resulting plants. Beyond this limit, 
the ear is sacrificed and the stalks become smaller. 

The following table will show the gradual tendency toward an 
increasing amount of barrenness as the number of kernels (or stalks) 
per hill increases. 

This is the result of 39 experiments in 12 counties in Iowa, cover- 
ing in some a period of 3 years (1905, 1906 and 1907) — years of 
quite varying climatic conditions. 

EFFECT OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING ON PER CENT BARREN STALKS. 



Kernels or stalks per hill | 1.0 

Per cent barren stalks | 3.2 



1.5 
3.4 


2.0 
3.8 


2.5 
4.6 


3.0 
5.6 


3.5 
8.1 


4.0 
9.7 


4.5 
11.6 



5.0 
14.5 



Hereditary Influences. These influences are clearly brought out in 
the great variation in the amount of barrenness noted from individual 
ears within a given variety of corn, making it possible to materially 
decrease the percentage of barren stalks by selection. 

The following table will illustrate the above heading. In arrang- 
ing this data the germination test and the per cent stand were selected 
as nearly alike as possible. 

STORY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. 


Test 


Per cent Stand 


Per cent Barren 


31 
33 


S. W. B. 
6-0-0 
6—0-0 


61.9 
62.4 


4.6 
14.5 



S— Strong. W— Weak. B— Bad or Dead. 



CAUSE OF SUCKERS 



449 



Ear No. 



HENRY COUNTY 1907. 



Test 



Per cent Stand 



I Per cent Barren 



41 
49 
44 
36 
37 
47 



S. W. B. 
5—1—0 
4—2-0 
0—6—0 
1-5-0 
0—6—0 
0—6—0 



83.8 
82.9 
85.7 
85.2 
80.5 
80.5 



10.8 
.6 

1.7 
26.3 
10.7 

4.1 



Ear No. 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. 



Test 



Per cent Stand 



Per cent Barren 



1 


S. W. B. 






42 


6—0—0 


74.3 


4.5 


43 1 


6—0-0 


75.2 


7.0 


46 1 


6-0-0 


81.0 


3.6 


32 


6—0-0 


82.4 


1.7 


62 


6-0-0 


71.4 


3.3 


64 1 


6-0-0 


71.4 


6.0 



CAUSES OF SUCKERS.— How Detected. Corn generally sends 
up but one stalk or culm. Occasionally one or more in addition may 
appear, branching from the lower nodes, near or below the surface of 
the ground. These are termed suckers. They may have no root system 
whatever, drawing their nourishment entirely from the mother stalk. 
Again, they are found with a few roots leading off from near the place 
where the sucker is attached to the mother plant. A sucker may or 
may not produce an ear. It seldom does. However, a tassel is gen- 
erally present. The presence of suckers may be attributed chiefly to 
two causes. 

Thin Planting. Suckering is not so common on light soil. On 
such land, thin planting is desirable. Considerable suckering is fre- 
quently found where thin planting has been done on rich, heavy land. 
This is due to the amount of available plant food being greater than 
that needed to nourish the single stalk produced from the planted 
seeds. The plant thus in its endeavor to utilize this abundance of 
plant food, sends forth these additional stalks or suckers. Suckering 
is greater in seasons most favorable to the growth of the corn. On 
rich, heavy soils it is better to plant four kernels to the hill, which 
produce stalks bearing ears, than to plant from two to three kernels 
and have in addition a large number of suckers which take consider- 
able nourishment from the soil and return no grain. The following 
table will illustrate this point : 

RESULT OF THIRTY-NINE EXPERIMENTS IN TWELVE COUNTIES IN IOWA 



Kernels or stalks per hill 1.0 

Per cent suckers 55.0 



1.5 
30.6 



2.0 
19.7 



2.5 
14.3 



3.0 
8.9 



3.5 

6.7 



4.0 
5.7 



4.5 
4.9 



5.0 
4.0 



450 



CORN 



A steady decrease is shown in the per cent of suckers as the thick- 
ness of planting increases. Where only one kernel was planted, 55 
per cent of suckers developed. 

Hereditary Influences. All varieties or strains of corn within a 
variety do not sucker to the same degree. For example, the Legal 
Tender corn, a good producer and very popular in southwestern Iowa, 
is inclined to sucker more than the majority of our dent varieties, while 
on the other hand, the Silver Mine is freer from this tendency. 

Individual ears within a variety differ greatly as to the number 
of suckers produced. This will be clearly shown in the following 
table : 

STORY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. 



Test 



Per cent Stand 



Per cent Suckers 



31 
33 



S. W. B. 
6—0—0 
6—0-0 



61.9 
62.4 



0.8 
2.3 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. 1 


Test 


Per cent Stand 


Per cent Suckers 




S. W. B. 






42 


6-0-0 


74.3 


13.5 


43 


6—0—0 


75.2 


21.7 


46 


6—0-0 


81.0 


18.8 


32 


6-0-0 


82.4 


28.3 


62 


6-0-0 


71.4 


18.7 


64 


6-0-0 


71.4 


22.7 



SELECTING SEED EARS FROM SELECTION BED. The 

latter part of September or the first part of October is, in general 
throughout the corn belt, the proper time for selecting the early matur- 
ing seed ears. Having the selection bed in which the best seed has 
been planted, it will be known just where to go in search of the best 
seed ears for next year's planting. It will then be unnecessary to walk 
over the large fields in search of the seed. When selecting the early 
maturing ears, the stalk on which they are found should be examined 
likewise. 

Examining Ear and Stalk. A study of the growing ear on the 
stalk is very important. The contrast in height will be found to be 
reproduced in a marked degree from year to year; likewise the regu- 
larity of rows and uniformity of kernels together with the early ma- 
turing qualities. Four feet from the ground to the ear is a desirable 
height. A lower position is unhandy in husking. If set higher, there 
is an increased tendency to falling because of wind. A short, thick 
shank bespeaks vigor and security of the ear from breaking off. Too 
large shank shows a lack of breeding and is usually accompanied by 



EAR TOO HIGH ON STALK 



451 



a large cob. An upright ear is to be criticised because rain enters the 
husks and rotting ensues. A moderately drooping ear is to be chosen 
rather than one in a loosely hanging position. 

The parent stalk, if weak and very slender, is undesirable. The best 
ears are not formed on stalks of this character. This inherited weak- 
ness will appear in the next generation. Stockiness at the base, with 
a gradual decrease in size upward, indicates strength and vigor, sta- 
bility in storm, and in general 
more natural strength than a stalk 
of similar height the same size 
throughout its length. Excessive 
foliage may indicate a tendency to 
produce fodder rather than grain, 
but usually a heavier yielder is a 
gross feeder. Only the well ma- 
tured ears should be selected for 
seed. An examination of the ears 
at this period is difficult, because 
the husks have to be largely re- 
moved or pulled back in order to 
ascertain the type and regularity 
of the kernel. At this time, ker- 
nels need not be taken out to ex- 
amine their depth or to determine 
the shelling percentage. Later on, 
during the process of germination, 
this feature can be more clearly 
observed. Yet the shape and type 
of the ears selected can be noted 
with definite characters in view, 
even in the field. Size and ma- 
turity are essential points of 
value. The largest possible ear 
that will mature is the best for 
any locality. However, maturity 
should never be sacrificed for size. A smaller, well matured ear is 
more desirable for seed than a larger immature ear. From this selec- 
tion bed may be selected the seed needed the following year for 
planting the large field ; likewise the choicest ears kept for the next 
year's selection bed. 




EAR TOO HIGH ON STALK. 



452 



CORN 




STALKS SHOWING EARS AT PROPER HEIGHT 



SELECTION BED— SECOND YEAR 



453 



SELECTION BED. — (Second Year). — In the spring of the second 
year, greater care and better judgment will be required in order to 
advance. The 50 ears now selected should possess a uniformity of 
type and show strong powers of germination. A repetition of the 
steps of the first year should be carried on the second. Some criticism 
of this method for continued use has been made. The argument set 
forth is fear of inbreeding and consequently a loss in productiveness. 
In a block of three acres properly handled, inbreeding to a harmful 
extent will not take place for many years, if at all. If the selection 
bed, as outlined, were carried on by every farmer in the corn belt, 
it would add millions of dollars to the annual income of the corn- 
producing states. 











Mf^fffi ^ ^^Iw riP^ 








^^^mrn^ 



CHAPTER XXI. 

CORN BREEDING 



FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PERMA- 
NENTLY IN THE BUSINESS 

There are some farmers and even large growers of corn who recog- 
nize the value of good seed corn, but would rather purchase it each 
year than endeavor to breed a small patch of their own. This is 
especially true of men who have a number of tenants. Such men are 
willing to pay three dollars per bushel for seed of good quality 
and vitality. The price of marketable corn and that of beef and pork 
enables them to do this economically. In other words, breeders oi 
pure bred corn will come to be a part of American agricultural de- 
velopment. The opportunity for advancement in this line of work is 
limited only by the capabilities of the man. 

Experiment Stations have tried for a number of years a number 
of different methods in the breeding of corn. The prevention of in- 
breeding and at the same time fixing type and desirable characteristics 
without curtailing the yield, are problems which the corn breeder 
must solve. Because of higher prices received for pure bred corn, 
the corn breeder can afford to spend more time and money in turn- 
ing out his product. 

A plan is here outlined which is brief and yet covers the main 
points in question. It is the combination of the desirable methods 
advocated by practical breeders and theorists. The figures used are 
merely for illustration and comparison. The scale upon which a breed- 
er caries on operations will necessarily determine the details of the 
work at hand. The plan is presented as the most successful so fai 
as present knowledge of corn breeding is concerned. Improvements 
will come and are hopefully looked for. 

THE CORN BREEDER'S PLAN. Outside of the work at the 
various Experiment Stations, there has been little done along the line 
of corn breeding; or in fact, in grain breeding in general, including 
improvement by selection. 



FIRST YEAR TRIAL PLOT 455 

The number who may be called "Corn Breeders" in the sense that 
we speak of our various breeders of live stock, are surprisingly few 
when we consider the great importance of this crop in its relation 
to the total annual production of the farms of the United States. 

It is to be expected of the corn breeder that he take greater care 
in the selection of his first or foundation stock. Fifty ears is a de- 
sirable number with which to start. These may be selected in the 
same manner as with those discussed under "Farmers' Selection Bed." 
When the 50 ears are determined upon, they should, of course, be the 
very best that could be secured for the purpose. 

FIRST YEAR.— Trial Plot. The entire ear will not be planted as 
in the former case, but merely a portion of each in accordance with 
the following outline. 







^-m^^. 




PLANTING INDIVIDUAL EARS BY HAND. 



Select a piece of ground located as per the directions under "Farm- 
ers' Selection Bed." Mark off a piece 50 hills square, the rows having 
same width as the planter, that it may be cultivated with the rest of 
the field. This will then give a piece of land of 50 rows in width, each 
row containing 50 hills. Number the rows from one to 50; likewise 
the ears. One hundred and fifty kernels may now be taken from one 
side of each ear. The rest of the ear must be very carefully put away 
where nothing will bother it. Some of them are to be mated the 
following year; everything depends upon their being safely kept. 
The 150 kernels from each ear will just be sufficient for the planting 
of three kernels in each of the 50 hills to the row. The planting 



456 CORN 

should be done by hand. It is to be remembered that the kernels from 
ear No. i are to be planted in row No. i ; ear No. 2 in row No. 2, etc., 
until each ear will be represented in a row whose number corresponds 
to the number of the ear. The summer care need be no different from 
that given to the remainder of the field. The barren stalks, weak stalks, 
and suckers should be eliminated in like manner as described under 
"Farmers' Selection Bed." 

Keep a Record. Each row should be carefully studied. A 
count of the stand should be made. Note the comparative strength 
of the stalks produced in each row, the percentage of barren stalks, 
weak stalks, and suckers; also the presence of smut, the height of 
the ear on the stalk, together with the early maturing qualities. The 
great contrast in the individuality of different ears of corn as shown 
in their production will be clearly seen. Complete notes should be 
made on each row, embodying in detail all the foregoing points men- 
tioned. These notes will be of assistance when it comes to mating the 
ears the following season. In the fall, the produce of each ear should 
be harvested, separately, and carefully weighed. For general seed 
purposes this seed may be very properly saved, especially if chosen 
from the highest yielding rows which show early maturity. 

Contrast in Yield. It will be found that there is a decided 
difference in the productivity of ears of corn, even though from all 
outward appearances they are very similar, and test equally strong 
in the germination box. The yield per acre may be easily computed, 
remembering that there are 3,556 hills made by a 3 foot 6 inch plant- 
er and 3,240 made by a 3 foot 8 inch planter, the two widths most 
commonly used in the corn belt. Ears may vary in production as 
much as from 15 to 100 bushels per acre on similar ground under the 
same cultivation. Close examination of the original ears will never 
reveal these facts of yield. The individuality of each ear is unlocked 
only upon trial under field conditions. The value of this individuality 
then stands in results per acre. 

Individuality of Ears. 

The productive power is now definitely known. For example, ears 
Nos. 1 and 50 may have yielded 90 bushels and 100 bushels respective- 
ly, while Nos. 30 and 40 may have produced in turn 20 and 35 bush- 
els. The locality and fertility of the soil will determine the standard 
from which to base selections. Some breeders choose all the ears 
which yield above 70 bushels. Some set the basis lower. Assuming 
that, from the original 50 ears, 30 have all kept in good shape and 



CORN REGISTRY 



457 




o 

h 
< 

w 

o 

o 
z 

Q 
W 
W 

Pi 

09 

Z 

OS 

o 
u 

o 

Q 

o 
u 

M 



458 



CORN 



yielded well, and have proved after a test the second spring that their 
vitality is unimpaired, the real breeding of corn begins. 

SECOND YEAR. — Mating Individual Ears in the Breeding Block. 

Because of their high yield, 90 and 100 bushels respectively, ears Nos. 
I and 50 will be planted together in a breeding block 20 hills square. 
In the odd numbered rows, 1-3-7-9-11-13-15-17-19, plant kernels 
from ear No. i ; in the even numbered rows, 2-4-6-8- 10- 12- 14- 16- 18-20, 
plant those from ear No, 50. Three kernels per hill is again prefer- 
able. These should be planted by hand though some breeders practice 
planting with a planter. These rows will not usually tassel at the 
same time. Should they do so, there is little difference which row is 
detasseled. If any preference is made, the strongest row of plants 
should be detasseled, thus making them the mother stalks. When 
the stalks from ear No. i, that is, the odd numbered rows, begin to tas- 
sel before those of ear No. 50, the even numbered rows, then detassel 
the rows representing ear No. i, and vice versa. All weak stalks. 
barren stalks, and suckers should be removed, as in "Farmers' Selec- 
tion Bed." Silking usually occurs a few days later than tasseling. 
Hence, the silks of the detasseled rows will be in a receptive state 
when the pollen of the later tasseling rows is ripened. 




EFFECT OF INBREEDING 
The two rows in the center are dwarfed because of inbreeding. 

It will be seen that these two rows have now been mated. The 
ears from the detasseled stalks should be saved for seed and the ears 
from the other rows discarded from further breeding operations, be- 
cause they are inbred. This covers the care for one block 20 hills 
square. Where extensive breeding operations are carried on, a number 
of such isolated plots will be necessary. 

Advantages of the Breeding Block. 

I. Inbreeding is prevented. 



DETASSELING CORN 



459 



2. Definite knowledge of the yielding powers of each ear is as- 
certained. 

3. Systematic mating is established, whereby the most desirable 
characteristics of two ears can be combined and intensified. 
The sire is known. 




DETASSELING CORN. 
Pull out the tassel; do not cut it. 



How to Detassel. Tasseling time usually comes during the har- 
vest season. The farmer has plenty of work on hand. But just then 
the most important step in the process oi advancement in corn breed- 
ing must be made. Every day for from seven to ten days new tassels 
will appear. Detasseling is a process which requires time and pa- 



460 



CORN 



tietice. The tassels should always be pulled and never cut. Some 
farmers go through the patch on foot, bending the stalk over and hold- 
ing it with one hand near the top joint, pulling the tassel from its place 
without injuring the plant. In rank growing corn, a man astride a 
horse that is muzzled to prevent destroying the corn, can pass between 
the rows and very rapidly detassel. The number of times that the 
block must be gone over depends upon the rapidity of the appearance 
of the tassels. When simply detasseling to eliminate the barren stalks, 
it will be found profitable to cut such stalks off at the surface of 
the ground. 

THIRD YEAR.— The Increase Bed. The "Increase Bed" is the 
next step. This will be started the third year. In the breeding blocks 
mentioned above, which were 20 hills square, there will be 200 hills 
in each which have been detasseled. Three kernels being planted by 
hand in each hill, it is safe to assume that from the detasseled stalks 
in each breeding block, as many as 400 ears will be secured, or at least 
4 bushels of ears entirely free for the pollen shed from the tas- 
sels borne on their own stalks. This amount of seed will generally 
be secured from each breeding block. In studying these breeding 
blocks, very complete data should be taken of both the tasseled and 
detasseled rows. While the seed from the tasseled rows is not saved 




"STALKS A-FOOLIN' 'ROUND ALL SUMMER, DOIN' NOTHIN'." 

No. 1 has a fairly good ear, weighing 16 ounces; one stalk per hill on one acre of 
ground, each producing an ear of this weight would yield 50 bushels and 56 pounds^ at the 
rate of 70 pounds per bushel. No. 2 weighs 10 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 31 
bushels and 52 pounds. No. 3 weighs 9 ounces: one stalk per hill would yield 28 
bushels and 40 pounds. No. 4 weighs 6 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 19 
bushels -ind 3 pounds. No. 5 weighs 3 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 9 bushels 
and 36 pounds. No. 6 weighs one ounce; one stalk per hill would yield 3 bushels and 
12 pounds. No. 7 produced the ear that is not there. Nos. 4, 5, 6, _and_ 7 are worse 
than worthless in the field, on account of their producing pollen, which is distributed 
over the field. 



LOCATION OF BREEDING BLOCK 



461 



to plant in "increase bed," being very largely inbred, yet it is 
desirable to keep a detailed record of their performances as 
they are the sire rows in the breeding blocks. It will be 
found that some of the breeding blocks are yielding much 
higher than others, and in general the detasseled rows yield- 
ing higher than the tasseled rows. From the ears produced on 
■ — say two of the highest yielding breeding blocks (breeding blocks 
Nos. 1 and 5, for example), select 25 to 30 of each. It is very likely 

HAND POLLINATED EAR. 




that not more than 30 out of the 400 ears will be especially suitable. 
The two sets of ears must hot be mixed, but should be given a germi- 
nation test, the strong ones then shelled and graded ; in fact, prepared 
in accordance with "Selection and Preparation of Seed Corn for 
Planting." It will thus be seen that we now have two lots of — say 25 
ears each ; one lot, the best of the 400 from the detasseled rows in 
breeding block No. i (from ear No. i, with ear No. 50 as sire) ; the 
second lot, the best 25 ears from the detasseled rows in breeding block 
No. 5 (from ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire). The "increase bed" 
will now be planted, the following or third year, as follows: 

Location, Planting and Care. Select if possible another isolated 
plot of three acres. The seed from one lot (taken from 
breeding block No. i, selected from detasseled ear No. i. 
with ear No. 50 as sire), should be put in the planter box on one 
side only; the seed from the second lot (taken from breeding block 
No. 5, selected from detasseled ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire), 
should be put in the other planter box. The three-acre plot should 
now be planted so that the ears representing seed from lot No. i and 
Lot No. 2, respectively, shall be placed in alternate rows. This will 
be the increase bed and should be cared for in respect to dctasseling. 
in exactly the same way as outlined under the heading "Mating Indi- 
vidual Ears." In addition to this, all the weak stalks, barren stalks, 
and suckers, should be cut out. While the increase bed is not a mat- 
ing of individual ears, it is, however, mating the progeny of high 



462 CORN 

yielding individual ears. The rows in the "increase bed" should be 
numbered. We will then have the odd and even numbered rows as 
discussed under "Mating Ears in Breeding Block," and will be handled 
in the same way. The seed planted in the even numbered rows is 
all the progeny of ear No. i (with ear No. 50 as sire) ; then the seed 
planted in the odd numbered rows is all the progeny of ear No. 10 
(with ear No. 25 as sire). The alternate rows thus representing seed 
tracing back to the same parentage. Either the odd numbered rows 
or even numbered rows should be detasseled in accordance with the 
directions under heading "Mating Individual Ears in Breeding Block." 
The increase bed is thus a means of continuing the breeding along a 
definite line, whereby a record of the parent may be had, together with 
data regarding their performances. This is a method which may be 
followed in the production of pure bred seed corn with which a pedi- 
gree of performance may be given. 

This is an outline of but one increase bed. As many more may 
be had as the breeder desires. The increase bed furnishes the very 
best place for securing seed corn for planting the general fields. Seed 
corn of this quality would be in great demand in any locality at most 
satisfactory prices. 

CONTINUING INDIVIDUAL EAR TEST AND MATING IN 
BREEDING BLOCKS. It is well that the corn breeder continue the 
individual test from year to year. The ears for this purpose may be 
secured from the increase bed. Such ears, of course, will already have 
a record back of them. A strict record should be kept when they go 
to the individual ear test. The breeding blocks of 20 hills square 
should also be continued from year to year. The corn secured for 
this purpose may come from two sources : 

1. The very best of the ears produced in the breeding block ol 
the previous year. (Do not use an ear which has not been 
tested.) 

2. Ears secured from the individual ear test. 

A policy that may well be adopted by all corn breeders, is not to 
mate two ears of corn in the breeding block until they first have been 
given an individual ear test as to their performance. Therefore, no 
individual ear of corn should be taken from the increase bed to mate 
in the breeding block until it has first been given a trial in the in- 
dividual row test. By so doing, the corn breeding will be kept at 
the highest standard. It will be seen that such a system as herein 
outlined for the corn breeder, while not taking a great deal of extra 
time, demands the most careful attention of a competent person. 



PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED 463 

Outline to Be Followed By the Corn Breeder. 

The corn breeder's method as herein outlined, is as follows: 

First year, trial plot of individual ears. 

Second year, trial plot — breeding block. 

Third year, trial plot — breeding blocks — increase beds. 

In addition to the above will be the general fields, which, partly 
during the third year and entirely so the fourth, may be planted from 
the pure bred seed from the "increase bed." 

PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED. The corn produced 
in the increase beds may be classed as "pure bred" seed corn. As a 
definite line of breeding has thus been followed out, the parentage of 
the ears may be thus traced back to the individual ear row test. The 
corn breeder will, no doubt, have other of his larger fields in corn, 
the seed of which was secured from that which was left over from the 
breeding blocks after he had selected the best of it to put in the "in- 
crease beds." In this general field he has done no detasseling, but 
merely has a mixture of this high yielding corn secured from the vari- 
ous breeding blocks in which he was mating different high yielding 
ears. The corn produced in these general fields may be classed as 
"high grade seed." These two terms, "pure bred" and "high grade" 
may be looked upon as synonymous to the similar terms used with 
live stock; in one case, as with "pure bred" it is possible to give a pedi- 
gree ; in the second, it is not. It will thus be seen that when selec- 
tions made from the progeny of high yielding ears are brought to- 
gether in a common field, the breeding identity is lost track, of; the 
product, however, may be called "high grade seed." When ears are 
mated, as in the "increase bed," it is possible to give them definite lines 
of breeding and it may thus be classed as "pure bred" seed. 

SOME POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BY THE SEED CORN 
BREEDER. The successful seed corn breeder must be able to dis- 
pose of his product. Many men of intelligent observation and love 
for plant breeding can develop a desirable type of corn. Few men are 
fitted for salesmen. Judicious advertising solves the question of se- 
curing customers. The farmer buys many things because of the wide 
circulation of farm papers giving descriptions of offered articles. The 
corn breeder should be very careful, supplying only such seed as may 
be depended upon to give satisfactory results. This insures patronage 
in the future. The new law passed by the State Legislature of Iowa, 
provides that seed corn sold to patrons by seed firms, must show a 



464 



CORN 



germination test of 94 per cent. Among the best dealers, this will 
have a tendency to induce them to adopt better methods of storage 
and a definite system of testing each ear sent out. It will, in fact, put 
the business of breeding seed corn on a scientific and legitimate basis. 
More corn is shipped in the ear now than ever before. Much of it 
is still shelled, especially with the seed companies. Crates containing 
one bushel each of ear corn are now used by all retailers of seed corn. 
An attractive crate with the sender's name in a conspicuous place 
creates interest wherever it goes. A station agent will be much less 
liable to allow a slatted crate of corn to remain on the platform in a 
storm, than he would were the corn in a closed box. Mice are less 
liable to hide in a conspicuous place, such as between the ears of an 
open crate. 




HAND PICKING SHELLED SEEDCORN. 
The corn is carried over a belt. 



BUTTING AND TIPPING 



465 



Satisfying patrons over a wide expanse of territory is impossible 
if only one breed of corn is grown. The sooner the limitation regard 
ing the successful culture of a given type or variety is known to the 
dealer, that much sooner the corn can be improved to fit the limited 
district. If the dealer live in southern Iowa, he cannot expect a breed 
which he has established in that rich, loamy soil to prove satisfactor} 
to growers in southern Minnesota or northern Nebraska ; at least not 
until it has become thoroughly acclimated in these districts, which 
may take several years. By keeping in touch with each and every pur 
chaser of seed, the results obtained will point to further exploration 
of that field or its entire abandonment. 




BUTTING AND TIPPING BY MACHINERY. 



466 



CORN 



COLLATERAL READING: 

Crossed Varieties of Corn, Second and Third Years, 
Kansas Bulletin No. 17. 

Detasseling Corn, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 25 

The Farmer as a Corn Breeder, 

Article by Thompson, Editor Farmer's Tribune. 

Breeding Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 210. 

Directions for Breeding of Corn. 
Illinois Circular No. 74. 

Inquiry Concerning Number of Barren Stalks in Illinois Corn 
Fields, 
Illi..ois No. 57 (Circular). 

Tillering of the Corn Plant, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 57 

Breeding Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 267. 

Indian Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 




CHAPTER XXII. 

CORN BREEDING 



MECHANICAL METHODS OF SELECTING SEED CORN 
FOR IMPROVED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

With care, corn growers or farmers can learn to pick out protein 
seed corn by dissecting and examining a few kernels from each ear 
by means of a pocket knife, selecting for high protein seed the ears 
whose kernels show a large proportion of horny parts. High protein 
kernels contain much horny part, with little white starch, while with 
low protein kernels the reverse is true. 

This method is already used by practical corn breeders and with 
a very satisfactory degree of success. For example, in selecting seed 
corn by this method, Mr. Ralph Allen, of Tazewell County, Illinois, 
obtained seed ears for the year 1902, which were 1.46 per cent higher 
in protein than the rejected ears from the same lot, and for the season 
1903, his selected seed ears contained 1.58 per cent protein more than 
the ears which he rejected. 

The method proposed some years ago by Professor Willard, chem- 
ist of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, of picking out 
high protein seed by simply selecting for large germs, enabled one, 
as a rule, to make some gain in protein; but the gain is very much 
greater when the proportion of horny part is considered. In fact, from 
experience at the Illinois Station, it was found that the selection for a 
large portion of horny part is of very much more trustworthy index 
of high protein than is the size of the germ. Corn is often found with 
large germs which is actually low in protein because of a small per- 
centage of protein in the remainder of the kernel. The fact that only 
20 per cent of the total protein of the kernel is obtained in the germ is 
evidence of the uncertainty of obtaining high protein seed corn and 
of the improbability of making any very considerable gain in protein 
by this method of selection. This difficulty was well understood by 
Professor Willard, as will be seen in the following quotation from 
the Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 197, Page 63. 

"There are undoubtedly great differences in the protein content of 
the part of the kernel, exclusive of the germ, and it is conceivable and 



468 CORN 

not improvable that a larjsre |?erm, thoug^h in itself tending to produce 
hieh protein content, might be overcome by the low protein of the 
remainder of the kernel." (Protein is substituted for nitrogen in this 
quotation). 

Of course, if one picks out corn with large germs and at the same 
time either consciously or unconsciously selects those ears the kernels 
of which contain a large proportion of horny part, he may make con- 
siderable gain in protein, but in such case the gain should not be at- 
tributed solely to the large germs. 

The method of selecting seed corn for high oil content on the basis 
of large germs is certainly well founded, because of the fact that more 
than 80 per cent of the total oil of the kernel is contained in the germ. 

Speaking of the correlation of oil and protein, Dr. Hopkins says : 
"All of the data gathered tends to prove that as the percentage of 
protein increases in corn, the starch decreases, while the oil remains 
almost unchanged, and that we may increase or decrease the percent- 
age of oil or of germ in corn without markedly affecting the percent- 
age of protein. This was the conclusion drawn when 163 ears of corn 
were analyzed more than 6 years ago. The different strains of corn 
which we have finally produced in our regular corn breeding work, 
furnish us excellent material for ascertaining what effect is produced 
upon the oil content of corn by breeding for a higher or lower pro- 
tein content and vice versa. What effect is produced upon the protein 
content by breeding for a higher or lower oil content may also be as- 
certained. 

"In 1909, we planted rows called the 'mixed plot' with 2 kinds 
of corn in every row, one kind having been bred for 4 years for 
high oil content, the other (originally from the same variety and stalk) 
having been bred during the same 4 years for low oil content. 
These 2 kinds of seed were planted in every row just far enough 
apart so that the identity of the plants individually could be known 
as they grew during the season. The corn from each of the 10 rows 
was harvested in 2 lots, one being corn from high oil seed, and 
the other lot being from low oil seed. The 2 lots from each row 
were kept separate, the one being labeled 'Corn from the high oil seed' 
and the other 'Corn from the low oil seed'." 

The percentages of oil and protein as contained in these different 
lots of corn are shown in the following table : 



SELECTION FOR OIL AND PROTEIN 



469 



©IL AND PROTEIN IN CORN HARVESTED FROM THE MIXED OIL PLOT 

IN 1900. 



LOW OIL SIDE 



HIGH OIL SIDE 



Row No. 


Per cent Oil 


Per cent Protein 


1 Per cent Oil 


Per cent Protein 


1 


3.93 


10.07 


5.61 


10.06 


2 


3.78 


9.26 


6.75 


9.05 


3 


3.73 


10.21 


5.88 


9.12 


4 


3.75 


8.47 


5.99 


9.65 


5 


3.89 


9.39 


5.71 


10.08 


e 


3.80 


9.77 


5.91 


10.23 


7 


3.60 


9.80 


5.60 


9.91 


8 


3.58 


9.65 


5.84 


10.32 


9 


4.22 


9.18 


5.68 


9.15 


10 


3.27 


9.26 


5.82 


9.32 


Average- 


3.81 


9.51 


5.78 


9.69 



This data is considered very reliable, both kinds of corn having 
been grown during the same season and in exactly the same soil, and 
each individual sample whose composition is shown is a composite 
sample representing many ears. The average difference in oil con- 
tent between the high oil side and the low oil side is 1.97 per cent 
oil, while the average difference in protein is .18 per cent. Consider- 
ing the percentage of protein in the corn is twice as large as the per- 
centage of oil, it will be seen that there is less than 5 per cent of a 
perfect correlation between the oil and protein. 

Attention is called to the fact that in selecting seed corn by chemi- 
cal analysis for high protein, there is a tendency to increase, not only 
the horny starchy part (which contains more of the total protein than 
any other part of the corn kernel), but also to increase the horny glut- 
en and the germ, both of which, though small in amount, are rich 
in protein, and consequently there is a tendency for the oil to be in- 
creased not only in the germ, but also in the horny gluten (aleuron 
layer) which is quite rich in oil. This is the evident explanation as to 
why there is a slightly higher degree of correlation between oil and 
protein in our pedigreed strains of corn than there is in ordinary 
corn which has not been so bred. 

Every low oil ear contains a small percentage of germ and every 
high oil ear a high percentage of germ. Attention is called to the 
fact that the high oil germ is even richer in oil than would be indicated 
by the high germ percentage as compared with the per cent of oil 
and germ in low oil corn, indicating that the breeding for high oil 
has not only increased the oil by increasing the percentage of germ 
(which contains most of the oil), but that there is also an increase in 
the percentage of oil in the horny glutenous part. Similarly, the per- 
centage of oil in the kernel has decreased even more rapidly than the 

(16) 



470 



CORN 



percentage of germ in the low oil corn. These results are very apparent 
in the table which gives this data. 

EFFECT OF BREEDING ON COMPOSITION OF GERMS 
AND ENDOSPERMS. As already explained, lo ears were selected 
for each of the four different strains of corn, low protein, high protein, 
low oil and high oil, and 25 kernels were taken from each of the 40 
ears, the germ being separated irom tne rest of the kernel, which we 
call endosperm. After the percentage of germ was determined for each 
individual ear, the germs from each lot of 10 ears were put together 
to make 2 samples, each sample representing 5 ears. The endo- 
sperms were likewise put together, so that we had duplicate samples 
of both germs and endosperms for each of the 4 different strains. 
Those samples were analyzed chemically and the results are given in 
the following table: 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GERMS AND ENDOSPERMS FROM LOW 

PROTEIN AND HIGH PROTEIN CORN AND FROM LOW OIL 

AND HIGH OIL CORN. 



Variety 


Part of Kernel 


Percent Protein 


Percent Oil 






\ 


18.05 


33.59 


Low Protein, 


Germs, 


} 


17.96 


34.60 






) 


20.85 


34.99 


High Proteiu, 


Germs, 


21.65 


36.02 






) 


21.70 


25.01 


Low Oil, 


Germs, 


21.71 


24.62 








17.55 


41.76 


High Oil, 


Germs, 




17.84 
5.69 


41.75 
.83 


Low Protein, 


Endosperms, 




5.68 
13.67 


.91 
.76 


High Protein, 


Endosperms, 




13.92 
9.13 


.72 
.52 


Low Oil, 


Endosperms, 




9.14 


.51 






) 


10.62 


1.07 


High Oil, 


Endosperms, 


10.10 


1.24 



"The results show in a very striking manner the effect of breeding 
in changing the composition of the different physical parts of the ker- 
nels. Thus, the germs from the low oil corn contain about 25 per cent 
of oil, while those from the high oil contain nearly 42 per cent of oil. 
As stated above, breeding to change the oil content not only changes 
the percentage of germ, but it also changes the percentage of oil in the 
germ. It should also be noted that endosperms from the high oil corn 
contain about twice as much oil as those from the low oil corn, al- 
though the percentage of oil is very small, even in the low oil corn, 
and this oil is largely contained in the horny gluten."* 

Perhaps the most marked and valuable results are shown in the 
percentages of protein contained in the endosperms from low protein 

*I5ulletin 87 of Illinois. 



HIGH AND LOW OIL CORN 



471 



and high protein corn ; the endosperm from the low protein 
corn contains less than 6 per cent of protein, while that from the 
high protein corn contains almost 14 per cent. These results, together 
with the ones given previously, would seem to show conclusively that 
to select high protein seed corn by mechanical examination, we should 
select principally for a large proportion of the more nitrogenous part 
of the endosperm ; that is, the horny part. To select entirely for large 
germs will have only a slight effect upon the protein content of the 
corn, although it will produce a rapid and marked increase in the oil 
content. 

Referring again to the preceding table, it will be seen that the en- 
dosperms from the high oil corn contain about i per cent more pro- 
tein than those from the low oil corn. On the other hand, the germs 
from the high oil corn contain less protein (17.7 per cent) than those 
from the low oil corn (21.7 per cent), the difference being 4 per cent 
protein in favor of the low oil corn. These results were to be ex- 
pected, even from a study of the analyses of the 163 ears reported 
in Illinois Bulletin No. 55 in 1899, which showed that large germs 
were naturally even richer in oil than the size of germs would indicate, 
the increased oil tending to decrease the percentage, though not the 
actual amount of protein in tne germ. 

TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF GERM AND OIL IN HIGH AND LOW 

OIL CORN. 





LOW OIL CORN 1 


1 ,^_ -NT- 


HIGH OIL CORN 


Ear No. 


Per cent Oil | Per cent GermI 1 '^'"^ '^"• 


Per cent Oil | Per cent Germ 


4,474 


2.68 


8.05 1 


4,374 


7.10 12.90 


4.48G 


2.65 


8.13 


4,411 


7.01 12.73 


4,491 


2.60 


7.92 


4,412 


6.87 13.73 


4,495 


2.59 


7,39 


4,417 


7.01 14.50 


4,509 


2.53 


7.06 


4,421 


7.02 


14.65 


4,512 


2.45 


7.89 


4,423 


6.95 


13.83 


4.521 


2.12 


7.13 


4,436 


7.17 


14.10 


4,537 


2.40 


7.57 


4,441 


7.37 


14.53 


4,548 


2.54 


7,83 


4,448 


6.78 


14.35 


4,555 


2.65 


8.47 


4,462 


6.74 


13.03 



It will also be seen that high oil corn contains nearly twice as 
much germ as low oil corn and that the germs from the high oil corn 
are nearly one and one-half times richer in oil than the germs from 
the low oil corn, but thnt, although the high oil germs contain a 
larger amount of total protein because of their increased size, they 
are considerably poorer in percentage of protein than the low oil 
germs. 

Attention is called to the fact that, although the physical parts of 
the corn kernel which contain almost all of the oil, viz ; the germ and 



472 



CORN 



horny gluten, also contain most of the ash, yet a high percentage of 
the ash in the germ is associated with a low percentage of oil, and 
vice versa, indicating that the ash content of the germ (which contains 
the major part of the ash of the entire kernel), bears a more constant 
relation to the oil-free material in the germ than to the whole germ. 
By computing, we find that the oil-free germs contain the percentages 
of ash as given in the following, assuming the oil to contain no ash, 
which is approximately correct. 

PERCENTAGE OP ASH IN GERMS. 



1 In Fresh Germs 


In Oil-Free Germs 


10.19 


15.34 


10.16 


16.54 


10.12 


15.57 


10.07 


15.74 


13.13 


17.51 


13.36 


17.72 


8.75 


15.02 


8.81 


15.12 



From Low Protein Corn 
From High Protein Corn 

From Low Oil Corn 

From High Oil Corn 



Breeding for high or low protein produces no marked effect upon 
the ash content of either the germs or the endosperm, nor does it have 
any effect upon the oil content of either of these, and only slightly 
influences the protein content of the germs. The low protein germs 
contain about i8 per cent of protein and the high germs about 2i per 
cent. The results show that such breeding produces exceedingly 
marked effects upon the protein content of the endosperms, the low 
protein endosperms containing about 6 per cent and the high protein 
endosperms containing about 14 per cent protein. In this connection 
it is well to remember that the corn kernel only contains about ii 
per cent of germ, while the endosperm amounts to about 89 per cent 
of the kernel. The significance of this becomes more readily apparent 
by an examination of the following table, which shows where the 
protein actually exists in 100 pounds of corn. 

PROTEIN IN ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF CORN. 



Names of Parts 


In Germs 


In Endosperms 


Low Protein Corn, 

Per cent of corn 


9.33 

18.01 

1.68 

11.44 

21.25 

2.43 


90.67 


Per cent of protein 


5.69 


Pounds of protein 


5.16 


High Protein Corn, 

Per cent of corn 


88.56 


Per cent of protein 


13.80 


Pounds of protein 


12.22 






Difference 


.75 


7.06 







COLLATERAL READING 473 

We thus find as a result of corn breeding, that in the seventh gen- 
eration we have a maximum difference of only .75 pounds of protein 
in the germs from 100 pounds low protein and high protein corn, 
while in the endosperms of these two kinds of corn, we have a differ 
ence of 7.06 pounds protein in 100 pounds of corn. In other words, 
in changing the protein content of corn, the effect produced in the 
endosperm amounts to almost ten times the effect produced in the 
germs.* 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Analyses of Corn, with reference to its improvement, 
Kansas Bulletin No. 107. 

Improvement of the Chemical Composition of the Corn Kernel. 
Illinois Bulletin No. 55. 

♦Structure of Corn Kernel and Composition of its Parts, 
Illinois Bulletin No. 87, 
Directions for the Breeding of Corn, including Methods for the 
Prevention of Inbreeding, 
Illinois Bulletin No. 100. 
Selecting and Preparing Seed Corn, 

Iowa Bulletin No. jy. 
Ten Years of Corn Breeding, 
Illinois Bulletin No. 128. 



INDEX 



A 

Absorption of water In plants 60-61 

Acreage of corn 4-8 

in tlie United Slates 4-8 

of barley 5-7 

of cereals in tlie United States 5-7 

of corn 4-8 

of oats 5-7 

of rice 5 

of rye 5-7 

of wheat 5-7 

"Afloat" 288 

Africa, production of corn in 9, 33 

Age of seed as affecting germination 55 

Agricultural leaders in Mexico 24 

Air, in the soil 58, 60 

plant food from 67, 68 

Alcohol, from corn 341 

cost of 342 

Angumois Grain Motii •• 248 

Aphis 23 1 

Area devoted to corn crop 6-7 

Argentine Republic 9, 26-30 

climate of 26-27 

corn, chemical composition of 30 

corn, export trade in 28-30 

corn, moisture in 29 

corn, prices of 27 

corn, production of 9, 27 

corn, time of planting 27 

corn, varieties of 28 

soil of 27 

Army worm 234 

Arrangement of leaves 45 

Arrive, corn "to arrive" 288 

Asli in corn 353 

Asia, production of corn in 33 

Australasia, production of corn in 9 

Austria Hungary, production of corn in , 9, 32 

B 

Bacteria, nitrogen gathering 69 

Barley, acreage of 5-7 

production of 11-12 

valuation of 22-23 

Barrenness, causes of 168, 446 

<iiseases 446 

hereditary influences 448 

insect injuries 446 

tliickness of planting 168, 448 

unfavorable soil and climatic conditions 448 

weak seed 446 

weak stalks 446 



11 INDEX 

"Bear" 312 

Bill-bug 230 

Black headed grass maggot 224 

Blackhawk Reid's Yellow Dent 71 

Blight 220 

Bloody Butcher 438 

Boards of Trade 304-331 

Chicago 304-306 

departments of 306-309 

hours for regular trading 311 

organization of 306-309 

objects of, analyzed 309 

other exchanges 316 

sign language of the pit trader 314-315 

terms used in trading 288, 312-314 

"Boat load" 288 

Boone County White 428-430 

Botanical characteristics of corn 36-54 

classification 36-37 

drought resisting characters 47 

ear, development of 49 

flower 47 

pistillate 49 

staminate 48 

kernel, development of 53 

leaves 45 

arrangement of 45 

drought resisting characters 47 

structure 45 

surface 46 

plant structure 37-38 

root growth 38 

conditions affecting 41 

primary roots 39 

secondary roots 39 

structure of roots 40 

stalk 42 

epidermis 42 

fibro-vascular bundles 43 

growth of 45 

pith 43 

woody wall 43 

Box board 343 

Brace roots 39 

Bran 339-363 

Breeding of corn 443-473 

for the breeder 454-465 

method of 454-462 

first year trial plot 455 

individual ear test 455-462 

second year, mating ears 458 

detasseling 459 

third year, increase bed 460 

care of 461 

location of 46 1 

planting of 461 

pure bred and high grade seed 463 

suggestions for breeder 465 

for the farmer 443-453 

selection bed 444 

barren stalks 446-448 

care of 445 



INDEX III 

location of 444 

manner of selecting seed for 444 

planting of 445 

securing seed for 443 

from own corn 443 

from someone in locality 443 

from someone at a distance 443 

selecting seed from 450-452 

second year 453 

suckers 449-450 

Breeding corn to improve the chemical composition 467-473 

effect of on endosperm 470 

effect of on germ 470 

for high oil 467 

for high protein 467 

Brown-Duvel moisture test 284 

Bucket shops 331 

Bulgaria, production of corn in 9, 32 

"Bulls" 312 

Burrill's bacterial disease 219 

By-products of corn 332-344 

amount in one bushel of corn 339 

chemical and mechanical processes 338 

from cob 332, 342 

from husks 332, 344 

from kernel 332 

from leaves 332, 343 

from stalks ■ 343 

feeding value of 345-365 

fermentation products 341 

mechanical and milling products 332 

milling by-products 334 

alcohol ' 341 

box board 343 

cellulose 343 

cerealine "• 335 

cob ashes 342 

cob meal 361 

cob pipes 342 

cobs as fertilizer 342 

corn bran 338-339, 363 

corn crisp 337 

corn down 343 

corn flakes 337 

corn flour 336 

corn meal 332-333 

corn oil 339 

corn oil cake 339, 363 

corn oil meal 363 

corn rubber 339 

corn starch 340 

corn syrup 340 

dextrine 339 

distiller's grains 364 

distillery slop 341 

flourine 340 

fusel oil 342 

germ oil 339 

germ oil meal 339 

glucose 340 

gluten feed 363 

gluten meal 339, 362 



IV INDEX 

hominy 335 

hominy chops 364 

husks 344 

karo 340 

maizena 336 

mixing glucose 340 

new corn product 343-364 

oswego 336 

paper 343 

pyroxylin varnish 343 

samp 335 

starch 339-340 

starch feeds 3 64 

syrup 340 

c 

"Cables" 313 

Calcium as plant food 70 

Calibrating the planter 133-135 

Calico corn 438 

Capacity of cars. 264 

Carbon as a plant food 67, 70 

Carbohydrates in corn 351 

Cars, (see also Marketing) 261-267 

capacity of for shipping corn 264 

lining of 263 

preparing for shipment 262-263 

shortage of 261 

size of 264 

Cash grain 288-312 

Cattle King 440 

Cellulose from corn 343-344 

Cement floor for crib 197 

Center of production 17 

Cerealine 335 

"Charter" 288 

Chase's White Dent 436 

Checked corn 159-161 

cultivation of 178-189 

planting of 159-161 

Chemical composition of corn 30, 349-3 52 

ash 353 

carbohydrates 351 

cellulose 343-344 

crude fiber 352 

fat 351 

protein 350 

water 99, 109, 353 

effect of breeding on 467-473 

effect of climate and soil on 74-84 

of Argentine corn 30 

of parts of corn kernel 349-3 50 

of corn fodder 348-350 

of silage 379-397 

Chemical products of corn 338 

Chicago as a terminal market 253-270 

prices of corn in 271 

Chinch bugs 233 

Claims for losses in shipping 266-267 

Classification of corn 36-37 

Classification of markets 253 



INDEX V 

Climate 72-84 

effect upon character of growth 73 

effect upon composition of corn 74 

effect upon distribution of corn 72 

relation of precipitation to corn growing 75-83 

relation of soil fertility to corn growing 84 

relation of temperature to corn growing 83 

varieties adapted to 74 

Cob products 332, 342 

Cob-pipes 342 

Cob-rot of corn 223 

Cobs as fuel 342 

Commercial products of corn (see "By-products") . ., 332-344 

Composition of corn, chemical (see "Chemical Composition") 30, 348-352 

effect of breeding and selection on 467-473 

effect of climate on 74 

effect of maturity on 368-370 

influence of soil on 84 

of Argentine corn 30 

of fodder corn 378, 397 

of parts of corn kerne! 348-3 50 

of silage 379, 397 

physical structure 346-348 

Commissions for buying and selling corn 290-292 

Conditions of germination 55 

light 66 

moisture 56 

oxygen 58 

temperature 57 

vitality 54 

Constitution as a factor in plant growth 60 

Continuous corn growing 85-86 

Continents, production of corn by 9-10 

Co-operative elevators 256-260 

Corn bill bug 230 

Corn breeding (see also "Breeding Corn") 443-473 

cross-pollination 459-460 

detasseling 459-460 

hand pollination 461 

for the breeder 454-465 

for the farmer 443-453 

increase bed 460 

individual ear row records 456-457 

mating ears 458 

to improve chemical composition of corn 467-473 

trial plot 455 

Corn cob meal 361 

Corn crisp 337 

Corn down 343 

Corn flakes 337 

"Corner" 313 

Corn flour 336 

Corn fodder 366-382 

allowance for in cost of production 208 

• feeding value of 378-397 

losses in 377 

machinery for harvesting 370-372 

methods of feeding 374 

methods of harvesting 370-372 

planting corn for 366 

shocking of 373 

shredding of 375-377 



VI INDEX 

threshing of 377 

time of harvesting 367-369 

varieties of corn for 367 

vs. hay 379 

vs. silage 379 

yield of 373 

Corn grower's reminder 135 

Corn ground, preparation of (see also "Preparation of corn ground") 138-159 

breaking stalks 140 

discing 141, 143, 154-156 

harrowing 156-158 

plowing 143-153 

preparation before planting 153-159 

rolling 158-159 

Corn husks, uses of 332, 344 

Corn maggot 224 

Corn meal 332 

as a food 333, 361 

exports of 334 

feeding value of 333, 361 

for stock 361 

Corn oil 339 

Corn oil meal 339, 363 

Corn oil cake 339, 363 

Corn plant (see also "Botanical characteristics") 37-38 

flower of 47 

root growth of 38 

structure of 37-38 

Corn products (see "By-products") 352-344 

Corn root worm 236 

Corn root aphis 231 

Corn rubber 339 

Corn silage (see "Silage") 383-402 

Corn stalk disease 220-221 

Corn starch 340 

Corn syrup 340 

Cost of handling grain through elevators 254 

Cost of inspection 290-292 

Cost of production 201-214 

cost defined 201 

cost of production and preparation for feeding 356 

equipment 207 

estimates of cost 208-214 

fertilizer cost 206 

fodder allowance 208 

interest on investment 207 

labor cost 202-206 

amount and character of 203-206 

horse labor 203 

man labor 202 

power labor 203 

overhead expense 207 

profits 214 

seed cost 206 

taxes 207 

upkeep 207 

Cost of production and preparation for feeding 356 

Countries, distribution of corn in 8-10 

production of corn in 9-10 

purchasing export corn 297-299 

rank in corn growing 9 

Country markets 250, 253 



INDEX 



VII 



„ .. , 196-197 

Cribs for corn 88-94 

Crop rotaton . ,„ 

Cross breeding of corn ,. 

Cross bred seed corn 

Cross pollination , ,_ 

Crude fiber in corn 178 191 

Cultivation of corn 179 

before corn Is up ■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.182-184 

depth or ,_„ 

early 184-18S 

frequency of _„ 

objects of 178-189 

of checked corn 178 189 

of drilled corn 189^191 

of listed corn , 

with the harrow 179 181 

with the weeder icc'iqi 

Cultivators, kinds of 47 

Curling of corn ' _ 

Cutworms 

D 

314 
"Deliverv price ,_ 

Dent corn (Zea Indentata) isV ioj. 

Depth of cultivation 162 

Depth of planting corn • • 

Derivation of word "corn" . . ; 4.59I46O 

Detasseling corn " .. 

Development of ear ,- 

°j •'^•^^ : : : ; : ;.";.v/. 38-41 

of roots -,q 

Dextrine ~cc 

Digestibility of corn .■.■■.'.■.* .■.'hiV 'hs", ' 154 

^^^.'^^•"g • , : . .216-223 

Diseases or corn „ 

Burrill's bacterial disease '1 

cob rot 27/c 

corn smut 220-2^1 

corn stalk disease ' ~ 

<=«'■" ^>lt ■.■.221-223 

ear rots 220 

4eaf blight 220 

maize rust ~ 1 ki 1 ^S 

Distance between corn rows 

... .,, , i+l 

Distillery slop , ,. 

Distiller's grains gj^ 

Distribution of corn _2 

effect of climate on ' ^ 

Drilled corn . . . _ • ' ' '; ' V78-189 

cultivation of j_2 

planting of .j 

Drought resisting characters " 

Duvel moisture test 

E 

178 
Early cultivation of corn , 

Early varieties • 40 

Ear of corn plant ^^ 

development of -2 

position of 



VIII INDEX 

Ear rots 221-223 

Ear worm 247 

Elevators 253-260 

co-operative 256-260 

independent 256 

line 256 

cost of handling grain through 254 

distribution of 254 

manager of, qualifications 255 

regular warehouses 255 

Enzymes 57 

Epidermis of corn stalk 42 

Equipment cost in corn production 207 

Europe, distribution of corn in 1, 9, 31, 32 

production of corn in 9, 31, 32 

Evolution of corn 3 

Export corn 297-303 

amount exported 28-30, 297-303 

Argentine corn for export 28-30 

corn meal exported 334 

destination of 297-299 

drying of 300 

prices for 300 

trade certificates 301 

Export markets 298 

F 

Farmer's Reliance 434 

Fattening dry-lot cattle on corn 360 

Fat in corn 351 

Federal inspection of grain 272-281 

Feeding corn fodder 374, 378, 397 

Feeding value of corn products 345-365 

for cattle • 359 

for cows 359 

for horses 356-357 

for hogs 357 

for sheep 358 

of corn by-products 3 62 

of corn fodder 378, 397 

of corn meal 361 

of corn silage 379, 397 

of whole corn 3 54 

Fertility in farm crops (see "Soil Fertility") 70 

Fertilizers ' , 92, 93, 206 

Fibro-vascular bundles in corn stalks 43-44 

Filling silos 391 

Flint corn (Zea Indurata) 36 

Flourine 340 

Flower of corn plant 47 

pistillate or female 49 

staminate or male 48 

Fodder (see also "Corn Fodder") 366-382 

Foreign countries, production of corn in 8-10, 24-34 

Foreign seed corn 97-98, 443 

France, production of corn in 9, 32 

Freezing, elfect of on vitality 54, 110-112 

Frequency of cultivation of corn 184-185 

Fusel-oil 342 



INDEX IX 

Futures 318-330 

buying and selling; in the pit 314-315 

delivery prices 330 

how deliveries are made 325 

necessity of 316, 318, 319 

settling without delivery 320-321 

settlement and delivery prices 327 

signs used in the pit 314 

when delivery is unnecessary 322 

G 

Germination of corn (see also "Growth of Corn") 55 

as affected by age of seed 55 

conditions of 55-59 

constitution 60 

functions of moisture 56-57 

light 66 

moisture requirements of 56-57 

oxygen 58 

plant food 67 

temperature for 54, 57-58, 63 

time required for 58 

vitality 54 

Germ oil 339 

Germ oil meal 339 

CJIucose 340 

Gluten feed 338, 363 

Gluten meal " 339, 362 

Golden Eagle 433 

Golden Glow 437-438 

Golden Row 433 

Grades for corn 282 

commercial grades 282 

government grades 282 

grain grades for farmers 285 

grain grading 278 

grain inspection 272-285 

mixing grades 285 

moisture test 277, 284 

receipt of corn by grades in Chicago 286-287 

Grading seed corn 130-133 

Grain weevil 249 

Grasshoppers 247 

Grass maggot 224 

Greece, production of corn in 32 

Growth of corn (see also "Germination") 59 

character of 73 

constitution 60 

continuously 85-86 

essentials of 59 

for show purposes 172 

of kernel 51, 53 

of plants, essentials of 59 

of roots 38-41 

plant food 67 

rate of growth 64 

relation of light to 66 

relation of precipitation to 65, 75, 76-83 

relation of soil to 68 

relation of temperature to 63, 65, 83 

rotations 85, 86, 93, 94 



X INDEX 

use of fertilizers 92 

use of manure 90-92 

water requirements _ 60-63 

H 

Harrowing corn 179-181 

Harrows 156 

Harvesting corn 192-200 

fodder 370-372 

method of 370 

time of 367 

grain 192-195 

cost of harvesting 194 

for silage 389 

machinery for 371 

method of 193-194 

storing of 195 

time of 192-193 

unloading 194 

seed corn 99-102 

method of 100-101 

time of 99 

Heating of stored grain 293 

"Hedging" 312 

Hildreth's Yellow Dent 441 

History of corn 1-3 

Hogs, corn cob meal for 361 

Hominy 355 

Hominy chops 364 

Humus 86-87 

Husks, uses of 332, 343 

I 

Illinois, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

"Immediate shipment" 288 

Importing seed corn 97-98 , 444 

Increase bed 460 

Independent elevators 256 

Indiana, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Insects attacking corn 223-249 

Angumois grain moth 248 

army worm 234 

black headed grass maggot 224 

chinch bug 233 

corn bill-bug 230 

corn root aphis 23 1 

corn-root worm 236-247 

cut worm 227 

ear worm 247 

grain weevil 249 

grasshopper 247 

northern corn-root worm 236-247 

seed corn maggot 224 

sod web worm 228 

stalk borer 235 



INDEX XI 

white grub 229 

wire worms 224 

Inspection of corn 272-285 

breaking seal of grain car 274 

commissions and fees , 290 

federal inspection 272 

for leakage or stealage 274 

grading grain 278 

grain grades 281-285 

grain grades for the farmers 285 

history of grain inspection 272 

inspection department 281 

inspector's ticket 274 

moisture test 277, 284 

registration of grain • 287 

re-inspection 279 

sampling of grain at cars 275-276 

splitting the samples 278 

steps in inspection 274 

Interest on investment 207 

Iowa Ideal 439 

Iowa Sil vermine 426-428 

breeders of 428 

breed characteristics 427 

history of 426 

Italy, production of corn in 9, 32 

J 

Johnson County White 432-433 

Judging corn 402-419 

points in 404-413 

general appearance 404 

maturity or market condition 409 

shelling percentage 411 

trueness to type 404 

vitality . . 410 

practical hints in 413 

score card for 402-41 1 

K 

Kansas, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Kansas Sunflower ' 440 

Karo 240 

Kentucky, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Kernel, development of 51-53 

growth of 51, 53 

structure of 53-54, 346-347 

L 

Labor cost in corn production 202 

Leaf blight 220 

Leaf, mid-rib of 46 

rain guard '^6 

sheath 46 

surface of 46 



XII . INDEX 

Learning 420 

Leaves, arrangement of 45 

drought resisting characters 47 

products from 343 

Legal Tender 430 

Listing corn 173-175 

"Longs" 312 

M 

Maggot of seed corn 224 

Maizena 336 

Manure 90-92 

Margins 313 

Marketing of corn 250-303 

amount of corn marketed 251 

corn shipped out of county where grown 251-252 

receipt of corn at principal markets 270 

buying and selling 288-292 

board of trade 304-331 

cash floor 288 

commissions and fees 290-292 

futures 318 

prices for corn 271 

terms used in trading 288, 312-314 

elevators •• 253-260 

co-operative 256-260 

cost of handling grain through 254 

distribution of 254, 258 

independent 256 

line elevators 256 

manager of, qualifications 255 

public warehouses 296-297 

exports of corn 297-303 

amount exported 298-300 

American trade certificate 301 

Argentine corn for export 28-30 

destination of export corn 297, 299 

drying of corn for export 300 

prices for export corn 300 

grades of grain 282 

grading of grain 278-285 

inspection of grain 272-281 

losses in shipping 266-267, 274 

claims for 266-267 

heating in store 293 

leakage 267, 274 

stealage 267, 274 

markets, classification of 253 

country markets 250 

export markets 253 

home markets 250 

primary markets 253 

terminal markets 253, 268 

terminal export markets 253, 298 

prices for corn 271 

registration of grain 287 

shipping of grain 261-268 

amount shipped 251 

corn enroute to market 261 



INDEX XIII 

losses in shipping 266-267 

out of county where grown 251-252 

preparing cars for shipping grain 262-263 

receipt of grain at principal markets 270 

size of cars 264 

storage of grain 294 

cost of 292 

heating of grain in storage 293 

public warehouses 296-297 

wareiiouse certificates 296 

Mastication of corn 355 

Maturity, effect of climate on 73 

effect on feeding value of corn 368-370, 390 

of corn at husking time 192 

Meclianical structure of corn kerne! 345-348 

Mexico, production of corn in 9-24 

Mid-rib of leaf 46 

Milling by-products of corn 332-344 

Minnesota No. 13 440 

Missouri, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Mixing glucose 340 

Mixing grades of grain 285 

Mixing grain for marketing 285 

Moisture (see also ''Water") 29, 56-67, 99, 109-112, 282, 284 

effect of on vitality of seed. 110-112 

functions of in germination 56-57 

in Argentine corn 29 

in commercial grades 282 

in corn at different dates 99, 109 

moisture test in grading grain 284 

N 

Nebraska, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Nebraska White Prize 438 

New corn product 343 

New Zealand, production of corn in 9 

Nitrogen 67 

as a plant food 67-69 

gathering bacteria 69 

North America, production of corn in 9-10 

Northern corn-root worm 236 

Number of stalks per hill 165-171 

O 

Oats, acreage of 5, 6, 7 

production of 13-14 

valuation of 22-23 

Objects of cultivating corn 179 

Ohio, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 



XIV INDEX 

Oklahoma, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Osmosis 61 

Oswego 336 

Overhead expenses in production of corn 207 

Oxygen as a plant food 58, 67 

P 

Palatability of corn 355 

Paper from corn stalks 343 

Parts of corn kernel, separation 347 

Peonage system of Mexico 24 

Phosphorus 69 

Photosynthesis 67 

Physical changes caused by water 62 

Pith of corn stalk 43 

Planter, calibrating of 133-135 

Planting corn 159-175 

checking 159 

depth of 162-163 

distance between rows 164-165 

for fodder 366 

for silage • 350 

drilling 172 

listing 173-175 

replanting 172 

thickness of 165-171 

time of 161-162 

Plant foods (see "Soil Fertility") 67 

elements of 67-70 

calcium 70 

carbon 67, 70 

humus 86 

nitrogen 67, 69 

oxygen 58-67 

phosphorus • 69 

potassium 69 

other plant foods 70 

from the air 67 

from the soil 68 

in farm crops 70 

Plant selection of seed corn 101 

Plowing 143-153 

deep plowing 146 

depth of 145-147 

fall plowing 147-149 

objects of 143-144 

points of merit in 144-145 

shallow plowing 146 

sod ground 151-153 

spring plowing 149-150 

Pod corn (Zea tunicata) 36 

Pollination 49 

cross pollination 49, 459-460 

hand pollination 459-460 

Pop corn (Zea everta) 36 

Portugal, production of corn in 9, 32 

Potassium 69 

Precipitation, relation of to corn growing 65, 75, 76-83 



INDEX XV 

Preparation of corn ground for corn 138-159 

before planting 153-159 

before plowing 138-143 

cutting the stalks 139-143 

discing 141, 143, 154-156 

harrowing 179-181 

plowing 143-153 

rolling 158-159 

Preserving corn silage ^°^ 

Pride of the North ^^4 

Primary markets ^^^ 

Primary roots of corn ^" 

Products of corn (see also "By-products") 332-344 

chemical. ^^2, 338 

commercial ^^^> 333-344 

fermentation products ^"^^ 

from cob 332, 342-343 

from husks ^'^ 

from kernel ^^^ 

from leaves ^^^ 

from stalk ^'^^ 

Production of corn ^'^^ 

bushels per capita ^'^ 

by continents °"10 

by countries • ^ 

by districts 13-1/ 

by states • 6, 7, 13, 14, 18, 19 

center of production in United States 17 

increase in H-14 

in Africa ^» ^^ 

in Argentine Republic ^> 26-30 

in Asia ^> 

in Australasia " 

in Austria Hungary 9, 32 

in Brazil 9, 3 1 

in Bulgaria 9, 32 

in China I] 

• T- 9 31 

in Europe o A 

in France 9, 32 

in Greece ^> ^^ 

in Italy ^' \^ 

in Japan ■■ -^ 

in Mexico ^' 'zZ 

in Philippines '^ 

in Portugal o' ^^ 

in Roumania ' ?? 

in Russia ' ^t 

in Servia '» ^^ 

in South America ^' ^^ 

in Spain ^> ^^ 

in United States, 1866-1914 12 

world corn crop o\± 

Profits in corn growing ^1* 

"Prompt shipment" ^^^ 

Protein in corn ^^ 

Protoplasm • • • • "^^ 

Public Warehouses 77, 

Pyroxylin varnish 

Q 

"Quick shipment" 288 



XVI INDEX 



R 



Rag-doll test 128-130 

Rainfall, relation to corn growing (see also "Precipitation") 75, 83 

Rainguard of leaf 46 

Rank of countries in corn production 9 

by states in average yield of corn 16 

Registration of corn shipments 287 

Regular warehouses 296-297 

Reid's Yellow Dent .422 

breed characteristics 422 

breeders 425 

history of 422 

Reminder for corn growers , 135 

Replanting corn 172 

Roots of corn plant 38 

brace roots 39 

cap 38 

central cylinder 41 

development of 38-39 

extension in drj' weather 47 

growth of 38-41 

hairs 40 

pericycle 41 

primary roots 39 

root pressures 61 

secondary roots 39 

structure of roots 40 

Rotation of crops 88 

effect of 89-90 

necessity of 88-89 

systems of 93-94 

Roumania, production of corn in 9, 32 

Rust of corn 220 

Rye, acreage of 5-7 

production of 11-12 

valuation of 22-23 

s 

Samp 335 

Sampling corn for inspection 275 

Sawdust box 115-126 

"Scalpers" 312 

Score card for corn 402-41 1 

introduction of 402 

purpose of 404 

use of 411 

Secondary roots 39 

Seed corn 97-135 

breeders 454-465 

breeding 443-473 

butting and tipping 466 

buying '. 97-98 

effect of freezing on vitality of 110-112 

effect of moisture on vitality of 110-112 

foreign seed ' 97, 98, 444 

grading seed 130-133 

harvesting of seed 99-102 

high grade seed 463 

plant selection 101 

pure bred seed 463 



INDEX ^^11 

, . , 97-102, 444-450, 469 

selection or 130-133 

shelling and grading .464 

shipping ■ ■ ■/...■• ..... 102-112 

storing ;• 112-131 

testing (see aho "Testing Seed C orn ) • ■ jjg.jyj 

Seed bed, preparation of 224 

Seed corn maggot ' " " ' ' ' ' " " ' " " ' '444.446 

Selection bed .97-102, 444 

Selection of seed corn .415 

Selection of show corn 28g 

Selling grain (see also "Marketnig") .'...... .288 

cash grain .290-292 

commission fees 3 J4 

futures 271 

prices for corn 327 

Settlement price jjO 

Shelling and grading seed corn .434 

Shenandoah Yellow ■• • ; 261-268 

Shipping corn (see also "Marketmg ) •• • 251 

amount shipped 266-267 

claims for damages .261 

corn enroute to market 266-267 

losses in shipping 251-252 

out of county where grown ^6^-263 

preparing cars for shipping gram - .".264 

size of cars 373 

Shocking corn fodder ..'... 312 

"Short" ■ y '.'.'. V. '.'.'.'.'. '.'...'. . 172, 415 

Show corn 375-377 

Shredding corn fodder ......!. 197-200 

Shrinkage of corn 354 

Signs used in pit trading . . . . .383-402 

Silage 394 

amounts needed 4qq 

compared with corn fodder ' ' '^^^ 

compared with hay ^j^ j^q ^gj 393 

composition of ' ' 395 

cost of ••;•■•• '.'.'.'.'."... 379,' 390, 397, 398 

feedmg value ot 3g3 

history of in Europe ■3g4 

in the United States 396 

losses in the silo • 3g'7 

manner of planting corn for .385 

preservation of 3g7 

thickness of planting for .....!! 389 

time of harvesting corn for 387 

time to plant corn for ' ' " ' '^^j 4Q j 

value of 38g 

varieties of corn for .!.'.... 391 

Silos . . 394 

capacity of 39 1 

filling of 393-394 

size of 435 

Silver King '• 216 

Smut • 219 

effect of in feeding 215 

yield of corn as affected by . . . 228 

Sod web worm . . . 84 

Soils adapted to corn ........... .Si 

Soil, air in •• g4 

influence on composition of corn 68 

plant food from 



XVIII INDEX 

Soil fertility (see "Plant Food") 68, 84-95 

crop rotation 88-89, 93-94 

use of fertilizers 92 

use of manure 90-92 

South America, production of corn in 9, 26 

Speculation in grain 316-317 

benefits of 317 

definition of 316 

necessity for 316 

Stalk of corn plant 42 

structure of 42 

epidermis 42 

fibro-vascular bundles 43 

pith 43 

woody wall 43 

Stalk borer 235 

Stalk disease '. 220-221 

Stalk fields 208, 381 

Stalks, number per hill 165 

Stand 171 

Starch 339-340 

Starch feeds 364 

Stock in unhusked fields 381 

"Stop order" 313 

Storage of corn 195-199 

cribs 196-197 

elevators 254-260 

public warehouses 296-297 

Storing seed corn 102-1 12 

Stored corn, insects injurious to 248 

shrinkage of 197-200 

Stored grain, heating of 293 

Stover 366 

digestible nutrients in 379-380 

Structure, of corn leaves 45 

of corn roots 40 

of corn stalks 42 

epidermis 42 

pith 43 

woody wall 43 

Suckers, causes of 169, 449-450 

Supply and demand of corn 21 

Syrup 340 

T 

Taxes 207 

Teosinte 37 

Temperature in relation to corn growth 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 75, 83 

Terminal markets 268 

Terminal export markets 253, 298 

Terms used in buying and selling grain 288, 312 

Testing corn for moisture 277, 284 

Testing seed corn 1 12-130 

cost of '. 127 

method of 115-130 

rag doll 128-130 

saw-dust box 11 5-126 

need of test 112 

relation of test to stand of corn 114 

relation of stand to yield 114 



INDEX XIX 

relation of test to yield of corn 113-114 

results of test 1 20 

time of test 115 

value of test 113-114 

Texas, production of corn in 13-14 

acreage 6-'/ 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

Thickness of planting 165 

for silage 387 

relation to barren stalks 168 

relation to per cent of nubbins 169 

relation to per cent of suckers 1 69 

relation to quality of ears 169 

relation to yield 166 

Tillage of corn (see "Cultivation") 178-191 

Time of planting 161-162 

Time required for germination 58 

Tortilla (Mexican bread) 25 

Trading 288-292, 311-331 

cash grain 288 

futures 318 

hours for trading 311 

in the pit 314, 318 

terms used in trading 288, 312-314 

Transpiration 54 

Trade certificates for export corn 301 

Turgidity 61 

u 

United States, production of corn in 9, 13, 14-20 

acreage 6-7 

center of production in 17 

production 9, 13, 14-20 

valuation of 22-23 

Unloading corn, methods of 194 

Upkeep, in cost of production 207 

V 

Value of corn crop 20-23 

Value of corn crop as compared with other cereals 21 

Value of stalk fields 208 

Varieties of corn 420-441 

Bloody Butcher 438 

Boone County W^hite 428-430 

Calico 438 

Cattle King 440 

Chase's White Dent 436 

Farmer's Reliance 434 

Golden Eagle 433 

Golden Glow 437-438 

Golden Row 433 

Hildreth Yellow Dent 441 

Iowa Ideal 439 

Iowa Sil vermine 426-428 

Johnson County White 432-433 

Kansas Sunflower 440 

Learning 420-422 

Legal Tender 430-432 

Minnesota No. 13 440 



XX INDEX 

Nebraska White Prize 438 

Pride of the North 434 

Reid's Yellow Dent 422-426 

Shenandoah Yellow 434 

Silver King 435-436 

White Superior 433-434 

Willhoit 440 

Wisconsin No. 7 437 

Varieties of corn adapted to various climates for fodder. 74, 367 

"Visible Supply" 313 

Vitality of seed corn 54, 110-112 

effect of freezing on 110-112 

effect of moisture on 111-112 

w 

Warehouses '296-297 

Water and plant growth (see also "Moisture") 60-61 

absorption of by plants 60-61 

amount used in production of one ton of dry matter ; 46, 62 

chemical changes caused by 56, 57 

functions of 60-61 

in corn 99, 109, 353 

physical changes caused by 62 

uses of in plant growth 60-61 

Web worm 228 

Weeder, use of in corn production 179-181 

Weighing charges at Chicago 292 

Wheat, production of 13-14 

acreage 6-7 

production 13-14 

valuation 22-23 

White grub 229 

White Superior 433 

Willhoit 440 

Wilt of corn • 220 

Wire worms 224 

Wisconsin No. 7 437 

"Worked for Export" 224 

Y 

Yield of corn, in the United States 12, 13-14, 16 

by states 13-14 

in Iowa, 1890 to 1914 75 

Z 

Zea Amylacea (soft corn) 37 

Zea Amylea Saccharata (starchy sweet corn) 37 

Zea Canina 37 

Zea Everta (pop corn) 36 

Zea Indentata (dent corn) 37 

Zea Indurata (flint corn) 36 

Zea Tunicata (pod corn) 36 

Zea Saccharata (sweet corn) 37 



W lEd 82 






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